Cornus mas - Cornellian Cherry - Perfect Plants for Polycultures

Popular and well known in Eastern Europe, Cornus mas - Cornelian Cherry or European Cornel Cherry, is less known in the west of the continent and around the world, but fortunately, is enjoying a rise in popularity, and deservedly so. During this post we’ll take a close look at these incredible plants, including how to grow them, their many uses, growing them in polycultures and permaculture landscapes, and I’ll introduce some of the excellent cultivars that we are offering from the bio nursery this season.

Overview

Cornel is an older form of the word Cornus, the Dogwood genus, consisting of 40–70 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae. They are mostly hermaphroditic shrubs and small trees widely distributed in the temperate and subtropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Most of the species in this genus have edible fruits however the majority are very small or tasteless with the exception of Cornus mas and its East Asian relatives  Cornus kousa - Korean Dogwood and Cornus officinalis - Japanese Cornelian Cherry. Cornus kousa is a remarkable plant in its own right and perhaps the topic of another post. I've not grown Cornus officinalis - Japanese Cornelian Cherry neither have I seen it growing but from what I can gather it's a Ringo to the Lennon that is Cornus mas. I love Ringo too :) 

Cornelian Cherry - Cornus mas

Latin name - Cornus mas
Common name - Cornelian cherry, Dogwood, Cornel Cherry
Family -  Cornaceae

History  - C.mas has been used for centuries for medicinal and food purposes, eaten fresh, and lends itself incredibly well to processing. The plants and fruits of Cornus are well regarded in classical literature, notably, the Roman poet Ovid mentions the fruits of Cornus mas in The Metamorphoses as he describes the Golden Age, a supposed place and time when the wild and intellect were harmoniously aligned and humans were all good. 

'And Earth, untroubled, unharmed by hoe or ploughshare, brought forth all, those men had a need for, and those men were happy gathering berries from the mountainsides, cornel cherries, blackcaps, and edible acorns.'

This plant has played a significant role in our ancestor's industrial and war activity. The wood is extremely tough and has been used for millennia to make objects that can withstand a lot of use and pressure, objects such as arrows and spearheads, and cogs used in water and windmills. Pausanias, Greek traveler, and geographer of the second century AD reports that the legendary Trojan Horse gifted to Troy by the invading Greek armies may have been constructed of cornel-cherry wood. It's thought by some scholars that the Troyan Horse was most probably a battling ram rather than a wood-crafted horse so it seems likely they would have built it from Cornus mas, the toughest wood that grows in that region.

Given its unique tasting fruits and striking appearance, Cornellian Cherry quickly spread across the classical world. In 1551, records indicate that a specimen tree was grown in the gardens at Hampton Court Palace, UK.   

Growing range -  A native to Eurasia from central and southern Europe (Pyrenees, France, Italy, and the Balkan Peninsula) to Turkey and Georgia. It is now commonly found all over Europe, having been exported and naturalized outside its native regions.

Description -   Growing at a slow - medium rate, C.mas is a small tree or deciduous shrub growing up to 5 m in height and 5m in width, although I have observed some specimens as tall as 7m. the plant is often pruned, via lifting lower limbs, to grow as a tree with the crown forming a rounded shape. The branches are densely ramified. The trunk is usually short and straight with showy exfoliating bark. 

It's an attractive plant, with delicate yellow flowers that capture your attention because of their early bloom time, typically in late February. These early blooms don't go unnoticed by the insect population either and attract bees and flies straight away and in large numbers. In fact, you could identify a C.mas tree by sound rather than sight at this time of year, as the bees hum away happily, gorging on one of the first food sources of the spring. The fruits are like red olives, and very astringent unless eaten when they are very ripe - at which time they are quite delicious and packed full of Vitamin C.  Leaves are opposite, simple, and have visible parallel veins. Autumn colors are pleasant with tones of green, yellow, and some mahogany red.

Sexual Reproduction - The species is hermaphrodite (both male and female organs on the same flower) and is pollinated by bees. As is typical of many fruit trees, having another cultivar growing nearby should enhance the fruit set.  Plants grown from seed make excellent pollination partners to grafted cultivars and vice versa. 

Light Preferences - C.mas prefers full sun and will fruit better there, but it grows well in partial shade and can even tolerate significant shade.  I've found plenty of these plants growing in deep shade in the forest around us. They grow much smaller than their siblings in the area with more light but, remarkably, still produce fruits, albeit fewer and smaller in size. 

Water needs - C.mas is drought very drought tolerant. Last year we had at least 12 weeks without significant rainfall and daily temperatures of about or above 30 degrees centigrade and I observed a young tree (3 years old) that had been missed out when watering starting to show signs of water stress in the 9th week under those conditions. Of course, for optimum fruit production, the tree needs more regular watering. The soil should be free draining and the plants will not grow well in waterlogged soils.

Habitat and Biodiversity - The flowers are hugely attractive to a wide range of beneficial organisms and importantly, several species of bees including honey bees and bumblebees, providing an early source of nectar. Birds are also extremely attracted to the blooming tree, and you can spot several species in it year-round, but particularly on flowering.

Hardiness - USDA 4 - 8 -  C.mas tolerates wind and frost well, and it can survive up to -30, something that we have witnessed firsthand. Our favorite specimen is the mature tree in our home garden, which must be at least 30 years old and has definitely experienced its fair share of Bulgarian winters.  Speaking of age, while researching this blog I found two reports of a surviving tree of around 300 years. Optimum fruit production is typically for 60 years of the tree's life.

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Where to Plant

Climatic Limitations - C.mas have proved to be highly adaptable to a wide range of climate conditions, from sea level up to 1500m in the Alps of Switzerland.  It prefers and produces the best fruit in full sun, and is thought to prefer thriving in open areas although also being surprisingly tolerant of semi-shade vegetation, such as forest edges and light woodland. Frosts and cold spells are also well tolerated but salt or maritime exposure is not.

Soil - Prefers moist, well-drained alkaline soils rich in nutrients, but is also found growing in all soil types from light sandy to heavy clay, with a pH ranging from slightly acid to very alkaline. C.mas is really very versatile!

Location - C.mas offers many great opportunities in garden design because it is so agreeable to a variety of conditions. If you are growing the tree primarily for fruit production, you will need to consider how you plan to harvest. The fruit starts to drop, but ripens slowly and at different times. We use a net and stand underneath the tree a couple of weeks after the first fruit falls and vigorously shake the branches.  This procedure requires plenty of space around the tree. 

Cornus mas tree on the boundary of our vegetable garden. 

If you would only like to eat a little of the fruit choose a location away from pathways as the trees will be dropping fruit from late August - mid-October and can be slippery as the fruits quickly soften to a gel once they have fallen.  For optimal production choose a bright location with at least half a day of sun and place in a location that can be irrigated during hot and dry summers.

Pollination/Fertilisation -   Apparently 'mas' in Latin means male, and C.mas is so-called because young trees only produce male flowers. The flowers only become "perfect" (with both male and female parts) later in maturity. In our experience, C.mas plants generally start bearing fruit in the fourth-fifth year when grown from seed. Grafted cultivars will start bearing fruit within 2 years. We always experienced excellent fruit sets on our trees and this is likely because we live in an area where C.mas trees are abundant in the wild. Plant your tree with more than two pollination partners to ensure a good fruit set, you can find more details on pollination partners below when we look at our cultivars on offer.

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Feeding, Irrigation, and Care

Feeding - Most trees do well without feeding once established, but when planting out we always add 20 -30 L of compost to the soil surface and a thick layer of straw mulch on top of the compost. It's good to pull the mulch 10 -15 cm away from the trunk during the winter to keep moisture from accumulating next to the trunk and rotting the collar. We'll add 20 -30 L of compost for the next 3 or 4 seasons.

Planting - We've planted trees in Autumn and in the Spring and all have taken well but probably the optimum time to plant Cornus mas is in Autumn as Cornus mas breaks dormancy earlier and it will likely be less stressful for the plant to be moved when it is dormant. 

 If you are planting different cultivars close by for pollination purposes, space within 10 m of each other. Once planted, The plant needs time to develop its dense and centered root system. Fruiting should begin in the third or fourth year. For a more detailed planting out guide see our link here.

Weeding - Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep layer each spring, and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice when the plants are young. As the trees mature, they grow well among other plants of all kinds and weeding is not necessary as a standard practice.

Pruning - C.mas takes well to pruning all year round, and will produce fruits and flowers internally on mature plants regardless of when you prune.  How you prune your plant may also depend upon its chosen use in your landscape. If you would like the plant to take on the form of a tree, you will need to remove one or two of the lower branches every year for a few years, until you see the desired shape forming along with a definitive main trunk. C.mas naturally will take on the shape of a shrub if untouched. as it tends to develop side shoots below or even new suckers from the base. These suckers should be removed from grafted varieties as they likely come from the original rootstock. The plants also take well to Espalier an ancient agricultural practice of controlling woody plant growth for the production of fruit, by pruning and tying branches to a frame.

Harvesting -  The red-fruited cultivars (there are also yellow ones) usually will turn dark maroon color and begin to start falling in late August/early September and can go on for as long as late October in our climate. I have noticed variations of a week or two depending on the climatic factors and how hot and dry the summer has been.  Cornellian Cherries are one of those fruits where the perfectly ripe window is very narrow. Harvest too early and the fruits are literally repulsive, harvest too late and they can be sour and messy to handle. When the fruits are ripe they will soften when squeezed gently and the pedicel will break away from the fruit easily. Often, when the fruits fall off the tree they are perfectly ripe. Once at the ripe stage, they will keep well for just a few days in the fridge. You can pick them when almost ripe and they will ripen in the bowl on the windowsill or in the fridge.

For harvesting large quantities of fruits nets are probably the best option. Once the fruit has been falling for a week or 2 and plenty of it has turned a deep maroon, we stand underneath the tree with a large net and shake the branches to release more of the ripened fruit and will repeat this every few weeks.

Propagation - You can propagate from seed, but there is no telling what the fruit will be like so grafting is the most common method of propagation for these plants. You can use the seed to grow rootstock and this is the most common rootstock used for all cultivars. Seed should be cold-stratified for 3 - 4 months and sown as early as possible in the year.

Irrigation - In climates where you have long hot summers, if you would like to receive good fruit production you will need to irrigate your trees. Approx 30L  of water applied to young trees every few weeks without rain will be adequate. In the below photo, you can see two Cornelian Cherry - Cornus mas trees from our gardens. The photos were taken the same day with the photo on the left showing a tree in a hedgerow that we do not apply irrigation to and the plant on the right located beside an irrigation channel that is filled every week in the high summer. 

Potential Problems

Pests, Disease, Problems - C.mas are renowned for being virtually pretty disease and pest-free, and in the 15+ years that we've grown them in a variety of settings they seem to be one of the strongest plants going. However, there are a few pests and diseases that they may fall prey to listed here

• Canker - Early symptoms of dogwood canker are small and pale leaves.  Initially, symptoms appear only on the infected side of the tree but become more general as the canker enlarges. Canker is usually exacerbated by overly wet conditions in soils that are not free draining. As tolerant as the plant is, it cannot tolerate water-logged soils.

• Anthracnose, a fungal disease with leaf spots. Other Dogwoods are more heavily affected than C.mas.

• Can be susceptible to leaf scorch during hot, dry, and windy weather, as we often experience in our location. This condition can look like a disease, causing browning and drying of the leaf margins and premature leaf fall. This affects our Cornus kousa trees a lot more than our Cornus mas trees.

• The plants do not farewell exposed to salt-laden winds or in saline soils

Cornelian Cherry Uses

Fruit -  If you're new to Cornelian Cherries, it won't take long for you to learn when the fruit is ripe! This is due to the fact that the unripe fruit is astringent and sour, and quite frankly, inedible.  However, once it is ripe and soft to the touch, it is very juicy and has quite a surprisingly pleasant flavor although still on the tart side, and makes an excellent cordial, the recipe for which I'll write later on in this post. In the Balkans, fresh fruits can be used for making Rakia or Vodka,  which is popular in some regions of the Balkans. I'd like to experiment with making a jam or jelly to accompany all the ducks we've had this year, but it's interesting that commercially, Cornelian Cherry hasn't really taken off.

While researching this post, I found a really interesting paper about the health properties of C.mas which concentrates on Polish cultivars of the plant, but I can't think there are huge variations. C.mas fruit is relatively abundant in vitamin C, containing more than other popular fruits such as strawberries and even lemons with its amount ranging from 34–100 mg/100 g fresh weight. The study found that the minerals present in the largest quantities included potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, and sulfur. The anthocyanins present in cornelian cherry fruit have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. See the table below.

                                      
Wood  -  The Wood Database provides some useful information, and recognizes Cornus as being one of the hardest domestic woods in the US & Canada with excellent shock resistance.  However, it isn't very durable in comparison to other hardwood species such as Oak.

Erosion control -  Potentially really useful. It forms a rich root system, stabilizes the soil on slopes, and prevents erosion. C.mas can grow in altitudes of up to 1400 meters.

Animal Fodder -  Generally, animals seldom eat or damage newly planted specimens, although we have used twigs to feed rabbits and goats before. The fruit is a good source of food for birds and other wild animals.

Leaves -  The leaves are opposite with a short stalk, oval in shape, and usually 3-5cm wide and 6-8cm long. They have distinctive parallel veins and turn to mahogany red in autumn.

Our Cornus mas tree in mid-Autumn Biodiversity - One of the earliest trees to flower, attracting a wide range of pollen and nectar-feeding invertebrates from Feb - March. We often see Great Tits, Blue Tits, and Long Tailed Tits in our trees during the winter. I'm not sure whether they are feeding on the buds, dried fruit, or perhaps the invertebrates sheltering under the crevices in the exfoliating bark.

Hedging - A most excellent hedging plant, slowly growing to form dense hedging that provides habitat, and often deep within the hedge, some fruit, for birds. Plants grown from seedlings provide excellent hedging stock. Space about 1.5 m apart and allow them to grow naturally for the first few years.  Once the hedge has reached your desired proportion it can be maintained using a hedge trimmer or shears. 

Medicinal uses - As with other red and black fruits such as blueberries, many studies commonly attribute the health properties of Cornelian Cherries to their anthocyanin content, a beneficial plant pigment that gives fruit and veg their deep red, purple or blue hues. Previous research has linked anthocyanins to a wide variety of health claims including increased longevity, cardiovascular health, cancer prevention and dementia.  PFAF describes the fruit is a good treatment for bowel complaints and fevers, whilst it is also used in the treatment of cholera. The flowers are used in the treatment of diarrhea and in our region, also the fruit.

Cornelian Cherry Yields

I would estimate that we harvest at least 50kg of fruit from our oldest tree in the residential garden. According to some studies, in its natural habitat, the Cornelian cherry can yield from 500 to 1000 kg of fruit per hectare but, in orchard plantings, fruit yields can reach up to 5000 kg per hectare. This gives the species huge potential.

In the past decades, the Department of Breeding and Propagation of Garden Plants, Faculty of Horticulture, Mendel University in Brno, located in Žabčice, Czech Republic, has been experimenting with some selective, less known trees with high ecological value, including C.mas, looking specifically at growth parameters, commercial viability, and phenology.

Cornelian Cherry Polycultures 

C.mas features in our Early Polleniser Polyculture - Ninurta. As the title suggests the primary purpose of the Early Polleniser Polyculture is to provide an early source of pollen/nectar to a wide diversity of pollinating insects. The majority of the plants in this polyculture bloom when there is little other sources of nectar/pollen available. This encourages pollinating insects in and around our gardens to fulfill their vital role when the crops (particularly fruit trees) start to flower in the early spring. 

Design Variations - The plants and habitat in this polyculture can be assembled in many ways. You can consider the plants and habitat listed above as a "palette" from which you can create many forms. Here are a few variations on the design where space is limited. The first design is a 20 m2 circle with all of the plantings fitting under the mature canopy of the Cornus mas. It's very similar to the first early pollenizer polyculture I designed during the development of a 5 ha polyculture/permaculture orchard  I was working on a few years ago. The plan was to include some early forage perennials and habitat for bees and other pollinators to support the fruit trees and shrubs, and I was pondering how best to integrate these plants. As the design developed it turned out there were odd spaces where the tree alleys converged with access tracks and the headlands. The spaces were not big enough for fruit trees to fit without blocking access. They were quite evenly dispersed across the site and seemed perfect for placing the polyculture.

The plants can also be planted denser for hedgerow plantings and subdivision hedges. The following planting scheme would work well for hedging with a 20 cm strip of flowering bulbs and ground cover running parallel with the hedge. The Cornelian Cherry and Hazelnuts may be left to grow out.

In 2018 we started a 3-year experiment in order to discover the properties of perennial polycultures.  specifically, we're looking at: how productive polycultures can be, what effect polycultures have on the soil (the physical, mineral and biological properties), the relationship between polyculture and biodiversity, the setup and running costs of the polyculture (in time, money and materials and how much fertility we can produce within the polyculture without external inputs. C.mas was one of the species used in our productive polyculture beds here with Eleagnus umbellata. We'll be adding herbs and bulbs into the bed as the plants mature and intend to keep the Eleagnus umbellata shrubs pruned to 1m high and 1m wide and use the nitrogen-rich trimmings to mulch the Cornus mas. 

We are growing three Bulgarian cultivars of Cornellian Cherry in this particular trial;

• Cornus mas - 'Pancharevski' 

• Cornus mas - 'Shumenski'

• Cornus mas - 'Kazanlushki'

We also have these cultivars available from the nursery and you can find out more about these plants in the section below. 

Cornus mas Cultivars — Hardy and Resistant to Major Pests and Diseases from our Nursery.

We have a small selection of local cultivars that are high yielding with excellent taste, and virtually resistant to disease and pests. Our plants are 2nd year on the graft bare roots with an approximate height of 60- 80cm (depending on cultivar).  ​​€14 per tree, with delivery available from late November - late March, to pretty much anywhere in Europe. View cultivars here

Email balkanecologyproject@gmail.com to place an order.

Cornelian Cherry - Cornus mas 'Pancharevski'

• Description - Large, cylindrical, bright red fruits with a nice gloss and bright red juice.

• Fruiting Period - Aug - Early Sep

• Storage - 5 -10 days with refrigeration

• Pollination -Pollinated by bees - partially self-fertile, better fruit production with two cultivars

• Disease Resistance -No pest or disease problems

• Form - The trees grow moderately fast have form flat wide crown.

• Root stock -Grown on wild Cornus mas roots 

Cornelian Cherry - Cornus mas 'Shumenski''

• Description - Fruits are very large, oblong. Their skin is red to dark red with a nice gloss and purple juice with a pleasant aroma.

• Fruiting Period - Late August  

• Storage - 5 -10 days with refrigeration

• Pollination -Pollinated by bees - partially self fertile, better fruit production with two cultivars

• Disease Resistance -No pest or disease problems

• Form - The trees grow moderately fast have form flat wide crown.

• Root stock -Grown on wild Cornus mas roots 

Cornelian Cherry - Cornus mas 'Kazanlashki''

• Description -  -The fruits of this variety are very large pear shaped, red to dark red with a nice glossy and crimson juice.

• Fruiting Period - Early September  

• Storage - 5 -10 days with refrigeration

• Pollination -Pollinated by bees - partially self fertile, better fruit production with two cultivars

• Disease Resistance -No pest or disease problems

• Form - The trees grow moderately fast have form flat wide crown.

• Rootstock -Grown on wild Cornus mas roots 

I'll end the post with a recipe for making Cordial that is very popular in our region and something we often make in late summer 

Cornelian Cherry Cordial Recipe

-Prepare by washing glass jars and bottles well and leaving them to dry.

-Harvest the ripe fruit by holding a sheet under the branches of the tree and shaking them gently. Gather them into a large bucket and rinse with cold water to remove other tree debris.  

 -Weigh the fruit to know how much sugar should be added. It's all according to personal preference and how sweet the fruit is, but as a general guide, 300-500g sugar for every 1kg of fruit.

-Place the fruit into a large saucepan and bring to a gentle boil for around 30 minutes, with the lid allowing a little steam to escape. Allow cooling.

- Use a piece of cheesecloth (we use a pillowcase) and strain the mixture through it, squeezing the life out of the pulp and seeds, which can then be composted.

- Bring the red liquid back to a gentle simmer, and add the sugar, stirring until well dissolved. Remember, this is a syrup, so you can test for sweetness by pouring a little of the liquid into a glass and diluting it to taste. syrup:water (1:5)

Once you are satisfied with the sweetness levels, you can pour the syrup into the glass jars and bottle while still quite hot, seal and leave them to form their own vacuum. 

Enjoy!

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At first glance, Espalier may appear to be some kind of plant torture but this is not the case. House plants slowly thirsting and starving to death in a dimly lit corner of a room, that's torture. Planting a garden in spring and then disappearing for the summer leaving the plants stranded in the hot sun, their cells dehydrating one by one, that's torture. You know when we continually adjust the position of our house plants when they lean over just when the plant has taken the time and effort to adjust its shoot system to capture all the light it needs? Along comes a symmetry-obsessed ape and spins it back to square one, that is plant torture. Espalier, on the contrary, is more like plant pampering. 

The Origins of Espalier

Espalier is a French word but is derived from the Italian word spalliera meaning “something to rest the shoulder against.” It's thought that we've been practicing this technique since the days of ancient Egypt, where hieroglyphs of espaliered fig trees have been found in tombs dating back to 1400 B.C. 

Trees are typically trained up against walls, along wireframes or trellises, and can take a variety of forms

Some espaliers can be huge taking up entire walls on a property but a lot of the time espaliers are grown on small structures to be easy to reach and manage.

It's also possible to grow them freestanding without any support or structures. We are trying this with an apple tree on the drip line of a lwalnut. 

As long as your espalier plants are well watered and fed and have enough light they will be fine. 

Why Espalier?

Espalier is great for a number of reasons

• When you would like grow your own fruit but have limited space

• If you only require a little fruit at a time but would like a lot of fruit diversity throughout the year.

• For easy picking with no ladder or tools needed for harvest

• Espalier can be used to provide a beautiful and functional subdivision or boundary 

• It's a great option if you would like to grow multi-layers of light-demanding plants or if you would like to integrate fruit trees into an existing garden but do not want to create lots of shade.

• In colder climates, when growing an espalier on a South facing wall or fence. The extra warmth provided by the wall's thermal mass makes it possible to grow fruit that would not be considered hardy or would not normally ripen.

• If you appreciate an intimate relationship between you and a plant and enjoy the art of pruning and training fruit trees to a desired shape, like big Bonsai.

Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs, and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars and eBooks.  We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like.  It's your purchases that keep our Project going.

You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.  

What Plants to Choose?

Apple and pear are most commonly used for espalier with the spur-bearing cultivars producing the highest yields but you can use any fruit tree you wish. We have Sour Cherry- Prunus cerasus trained around a wall of an old adobe building in our backyard. We are not short of cherries at our place and a lot of the fruit produced from this tree is often left for the birds but it does serve as a good pollinator partner for the other Cherry trees in the garden. We are often removing vertical shoots and new growth that grow away from the stem and feeding them to the rabbits and pigs. Sour Cherry - Prunus cerasus being quite a vigorous grower can make quite a mulch machine when grown this way.

Whatever species of plant you choose, you should start with a “whip,” a 1m tall single-stemmed plant that has not yet grown any side branches, and the regular fruit tree selection criteria will apply

• Climatic compatibility with your site

• Select cultivars that are disease and pest resistant

• Suitable size for your site i.e select suitable rootstock

• Select plants that provide fruit when you require it

• Make sure you have pollination partners and if you are only growing one, make sure it's self-pollinating

I'm looking forward to growing a Cornellian Cherry - Cornus mas espalier as a subdivision boundary within our Forest Garden. They take really well to Espalier.

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Where to Grow

If you want to get a decent amount of fruit from your espalier it should be located in full sun (at least 6 hours of light per day) Espaliers can be grown against a wall, a sturdy trellis or pergola, along horizontal wires secured to sturdy free-standing posts or another flat surface. 

Growing against South facing walls offers climatic advantages absorbing heat and hastening fruit ripeness,  however, the problem with South facing walls is that the ground below can dry very fast when hot and will require attentive irrigation while the plant is establishing. You need good soil as the plants you select are probably going to be there for many decades, ideally deep, free draining, friable, fertile soil with a nice thick layer of mulch on top. 

How and When to Prune

Pruning should begin in the spring after the blossom has emerged. Each blossom has the potential to become fruit so you can leave these and start to remove buds or shoots that are not aligned with your desired shape. Keep a close eye on the plant and continue to nip out buds that are growing away from the required shape and secure the shoot growth to the required direction. You should get a few fruits by the second year but it will take 4 or 5 years for the shape to form with each year more fruit provided. Eventually, there will be many fruits setting along the lateral branches and some support may be needed to prevent the branches from snapping. 

How to Build Espalier

You can find some very easy-to-follow instructions on youtube on how to set up your espalier frames whether that be out in the open or up against a wall. Basically, it involves building a frame and tying branches to it.

An Espalier Polyculture 

Here's a polyculture design that we have not yet implemented. It's a perennial productive polyculture that features a row of espalier apples and provides a succession of salad, vegetables, and apples throughout the year. It's ideal for smaller gardens or when you donʼt want to climb for your apples.  We'll be posting the full profile of this polyculture on this blog later in the year.  You can find full profiles for a number of other polycultures here.

Growth Forecast

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

Mulberry is one of the fastest growing temperate trees I know of, produces an abundance of excellent fruit every year and is virtually pest and disease free. It is one half responsible for the finest fibres known to man, i.e silk, can be grown nearly everywhere that has soil and is a source of high quality animal fodder plus quite a bit more, as we shall see.

During this post we’ll take a close look at these incredible plants including how to grow them, the uses of Mulberry, growing Mulberry in polycultures, permaculture and agroforestry and i’ll introduce some relatively rare Bulgarian cultivars that we are offering from the bionursery this season.

Overview

There are about 68 species of the genus Morus, and the majority of them occur in Asia. In China alone there are over a thousand cultivars grown.

We’ll be focusing on the White Mulberry — Morus alba that we grow in our gardens and we’ll also touch on Black Mulberry — M. nigra and Red Mulberry — M. rubra, two other popular plants in cultivation. Let’s start with an attempt to clarify the differences between these three species and then take a detailed look at White Mulberry.

The differences between Red, Black and White Mulberry

• White Mulberry are native to northern, eastern, and central Asia and are one of the primary species used to feed silkworms.

• Black Mulberry are native to southwest Asia. It was brought to Europe before the Roman Empire where it has continued to be grown for its fruits.

• Red Mulberry are native to eastern North America

There is a fair bit of confusion over these three species. The colour of the fruit does not identify the mulberry species. White Mulberries, for example, can produce white, lavender or black fruit. White Mulberry fruits are generally very sweet but often lacking in tartness. Red Mulberry fruits are usually deep red, almost black, and in the best cultivars have a flavour that almost equals that of the black mulberry. Black Mulberry fruits are large and juicy, with a good balance of sweetness and tartness that I personally prefer the most.

Black Mulberry can be distinguished from White Mulberry by a hairy lower leaf surface on the Black Mulberry plants. The juicier Black Mulberry fruit will also stain your fingers when you pick them. The fruits of the White and Red Mulberry are more difficult to tell apart but a sure way of telling the two species apart is from the leaves. The upper surface of the Red Mulberry leaves are noticeably rough, similar in texture to fine sandpaper while in stark contrast the upper surface of the leaves of White Mulberry are lustrous (Glossy, smooth and shiny).

Confusing the situation further, Red Mulberry and White Mulberry often hybridize, resulting in trees with intermediate characteristics.

According to Ovid (Metamorphoses — Book IV) you have the Babylonian lovers Pyramus and Thisbe, and the Greek Gods to thank for at least some of this confusion. In short, Pyramus and Thisbe denied their love of each other by their rivaling families decided to run off together (sound familiar??) The rendezvous was under a White Mulberry tree out of town. Thisbe turned up first and while waiting for Pyramus, a lioness with jaws stained from the blood of a previous kill started towards her. Thisbe darted into a nearby cave dropping her shawl under the tree as she fled. The lioness approached the shawl, dripping blood all over it just as Pyramus showed up. Pyramus chased the lioness away and seeing the blood stained shawl assumed that Thisbe had been mauled to death. In desperation he plunged a sword into his belly just moments before Thisbe emerged from the cave. Finding Pyramus taking his last breath she falls on the sword herself and they both bleed out in tragic unity. The blood splashing from the bodies stained the previously White Mulberry fruit, and the Gods forever changed the Mulberry’s colour to honour their forbidden love. All I can say is thank the Gods for mobile phones :)

White Mulberry — Morus alba

Latin name — Morus alba

Common name — White Mulberry, Silkworm Mulberry

Family — Moraceae

History — White Mulberry cultivation has a long and rich history dating back thousands of years ago as a requirement for silkworm rearing. They were beloved by Persians, Romans and Greeks and moved throughout Europe along with the spread of culture from these places.

Growing Range — Morus alba has a very wide distribution range in Asia and Europe (from Korea to Spain, including China, India, Central Asia and the Near East); in Africa (North and East Africa) and in the Americas (from the United States to Argentina, including Mexico, Central America, Colombia and Brazil). The origins of most cultivated mulberry varieties are believed to be in the China/Japan area and in the Himalayan foothills.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus_alba

Description — A fast-growing, small to medium-sized tree growing to 10 –20 m tall. It is generally a short-lived tree although there are some specimens known to be over 250 years old. Fruits can be white at maturity on a few trees, but are usually dark purple and 3 to 6 cm long. The fruits ripen from mid spring — late summer (depending on species and cultivar). The leaves are usually shiny, dark green and smooth but can be yellowish green. Most leaves are not lobed, but some can be. The juvenile growth is often lobed.

Sexual Reproduction — The trees can be dioecious or monoecious, and sometimes will change from one sex to another. The flowers are held on short, green, pendulous, catkins that appear in the axils of the current season’s growth and on spurs on older wood. They are wind pollinated and some cultivars will set fruit without any pollination. The White Mulberry is notable for the rapid release of its pollen, which is launched at over half the speed of sound!

Light Preferences — Mulberries thrive in full sun but can grow well in partial shade.

Water needs — The plants are drought tolerant but grow best and yield high in areas with rainfall between 600 -1500 mm/yr. In our location with average annual rainfall of 580 mm they grow well without irrigation. I have seen Mulberry growing well in wetlands and on riverbanks, as the plants are tolerant to sporadic water logging although they usually occur in non-wetlands.

Habitat — Morus alba commonly invades old fields, roadsides, forest edges, urban environments, and other disturbed areas. It grows well in natural forests, planted forests, range/grasslands, ruderal/disturbed areas and urban areas.

Hardiness USDA — 4b — 9a A very hardy tree tolerating temperatures down to -36C but also comfortable in sub tropical and Mediterranean climates. Morus alba is the most cold resistant of the Mulberry trees

Ecology — Many small mammals feed on mulberries, including birds, foxes, squirrels and rodents. Deer browse on the twigs and foliage and a range of insects inhabit the crowns of mature trees. In our experience Ladybirds are attracted to the Mulberry fruit. Mulberry is often associated with Mycorrhizae including Glomus mosseae and Glomus fasciculatum.

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Where to Plant

Climatic Limitations — Mulberries thrive over a very wide range of climates especially warm temperate but also Mediterranean, sub-tropical and tropical, where they can be grown as evergreens.

Soil — They prefer a warm, moist, well-drained loamy soil in a sunny position. However they are adapted to coarse, medium, and fine soils. They tolerate a pH range of 5.0–7.0.

Location — The trees are tolerant of wind, drought, cold and partial shade so you can pretty much plant them anywhere. The plant is also quite salt tolerant once established. A few things to consider when choosing a location is that the fruit fall can extend 6–8 weeks and once mature it’s practically impossible to harvest let alone consume all that fruit, so placing the tree in a place where the fruit fall will not be a nuisance is a good idea. Much to the pleasure of our pigs we set their pen under one half of our Mulberry tree with some of the tree overhanging the chicken coop also.

The trees can get large and will cast a heavy shade when mature so this should also be taken into consideration. We lift the lower limbs of our trees to allow space and light for a range of smaller trees, shrubs and herbs (see Mulberry polyculture later).

Pollination/Fertilisation — Some cultivars will produce greater yields if allowed to cross-pollinate, although many cultivars (monoecious types) do not need cross-pollination at all. Some Mulberries can even produce fruit without any pollination. Pollination occurs by wind.

Feeding, Irrigation and Care

Feeding — Mulberry require little fertilisation. When planting out new trees top dressing the planting hole with 20–30 L of compost and repeating this in early spring for the first 2 years will be more than enough to get them going. After this they should be fine, especially so if you are growing the tree in polycultures.

Irrigation — The trees will grow faster and produce more fruit with access to water during the flowering and fruiting period. Young trees should be mulched well each spring and irrigated for the first 2–3 years with 30 L of water every 2–4 weeks without rain. The trees develop deep taproots that should be able to access ground water if available.

Weeding — Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep mulch each spring and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice when the plants are young. As the trees mature they grow well amongst other plants of all kinds.

Pruning — Mulberry are low branching. We have lifted the lower limbs of our trees to approx 5- 6 m high allowing us to plant under the tree and to allow easy access around the tree. The trees respond well to this type of pruning. If pruning young trees bear in mind the flowering and fruit buds develop on second year old growth.

Harvesting — The easiest way I know of to harvest a White Mulberry is the shake and catch method.

Fresh fruit only keeps for a few days, and is best kept refrigerated if you don’t eat them immediately. This is one of the main reasons you don’t see much Mulberry fruit in the shops. The fruits can also be dried or frozen (never tried it personally).

Propagation — There are many reports on the internet of how easy it is to propagate mulberry from branches. Simply cut the branch from the tree and push it into the soil and presto! it will root within a season. I’ve tried this many times with our White Mulberry Morus alba trees with no success. In fact I have tried hard wood cuttings in every season with no successes. It seems to me that this method is probably effective method for Red Mulberry and perhaps Black Mulberry.

White Mulberry can be grown from seed and is best sown immediately after fruiting. Cold stratification for 4- 16 weeks can improve germination rates. Layering is also reported to work well.

Potential Problems

Invasive — This species is considered ecologically invasive in most of North America. The threat is to the native Red Mulberry (M. rubra) though hybridization. It does not seem to be a problem in Europe.

Pest and Disease — Mulberries suffer few disease and insect pests. I have never experienced any problems with the Mulberries we grow or any I have seen. It’s an oddity that based on this more people do not grow them at home and commercially. The main pest to Mulberry is probably deer that will browse on the leaves of these plants, but this is generally only a problem with young trees and regrowth from coppice. If you are growing for biomass pollarding the trees at a height the deer cannot reach is a good solution.

Allergies — The plant’s pollen has become problematical in some cities where it has been blamed for an increase in hay fever.

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Mulberry Uses

Silk Production — The Asian Mulberries are widely cultivated to feed the silkworm — Bombyx mori employed in the commercial production of silk. Silk was once grown across the world but since it is a very labour-intensive industry much is now focused in countries with low labour costs. China has 626, 000 hectares of Mulberry for silkworm.

The silkworm is a pretty amazing little creature. Feeding exclusively on Mulberry leaves the caterpillars emerge from eggs and fatten up, spin a cocoon (the silk part) and when not used for silk production hatch into beautiful moths. When used for silk production the caterpillars are boiled to death in their cocoon before they hatch. The boiled cocoons can be eaten and in China and Vietnam they are seasoned and fried.

Fruit — White Mulberry fruits are generally very sweet but often lacking in the tartness that can be found in the Red and Black Mulberries. The fruits ripen over an extended period of time unlike many other fruits which seem to come all at once. The fruiting period can be from 6–8 weeks.

Wood — Especially in the Indian subcontinent, mulberry wood is used for handicrafts, cabinet work and for sporting woods (e.g. grass-hockey sticks and tennis rackets). The thin branches can be woven into baskets. Coppiced mulberry produces fairly straight strong poles that we use for stakes and tree props. The plant grows very fast and makes a medium-quality fuel wood with a calorific value of 4370–4770 kcal/kg.

Erosion control: A useful species for stabilizing physical soil-conservation structures.

Reclamation: Can be grown on wastelands.

Soil Improver and Biomass: Fast growth and tolerance to pruning makes this a great chop and drop plant. Growth can increase soil fertility through litter fall.

Animal Fodder — As well as the feed stock for silkworms the leaves and branches make great food for livestock (cattle, goats, pigs and rabbits) and are used across the world especially so in areas with poor soils and low rainfall where fresh forage is not always available. It’s often reported that the foliage can be used to feed chickens. Our flock won’t eat it.

The leaves contain between 18–25% protein (dry matter content) and have high digestibility (70–90%). Yields of leaves and stems used for forage, range from 3.2–21 tons/acre/year (8–52 tons/hectare/year) with most in the 8–12 tons/acre/year (20–30 tons/hectare/year). If you are interested in growing Mulberry for animals check out this article from FAO.

Leaves — The leaves are prepared as tea in Korea. The tea can be made from fresh or dried leaves. They are highly nutritious and contain vitamins B complex (except B12), C (200–300 mg/100 g), D and flavonols. They are sometimes eaten as a vegetable.

Shahara Khaleque from Growing Smart.HK introduced me to Issei Shinagawa from Hong Kong who claims a cup of Mulberry leaf tea a day will turn your grey hairs black as well improve your general health.

All fresh leaves are fine to use for the tea. You can simply run your hand down a branch and strip all the leaves, they come off really easily. The leaves can be dried whole or cut into strips. I dried some cut leaves on our kitchen table by a sunny window and they were dry within a day and half.

Simply crumble a few leaves into a cup and poor on hot water and you have a very decent tasting cuppa. I’ll see about those grey hairs :)

Landscaping — Their resistance to pruning, their low water requirements and tolerance of pollution make them very suitable plants for urban conditions, house gardens, street shade and city embellishment. They are often grown on roadsides and avenues as an ornamental tree.

Hedging / Windbreak — I’ve not seen or tried these plants in a hedge but I see no reason why they would not be very suitable. They take well to repeated pruning, grow fast and have large leaves that provide a good screen from late spring to Autumn. Being fast growing and in little need of attention White Mulberry is a great option for shelter planting such as protecting orchards from wind.

Bee Fodder — The pollen from the flowers is utilized by bees and other pollinators and sometimes juice of overripe berries or fallen fruit.

Medicinal uses — The bark is said to be good in the treatment of stomach-ache and the leaves and twigs can be used for treating heavy colds, cough, red eye, insect bites and wounds. The fruit is used in the treatment of sore throat and melancholia. The Chinese have used Mulberry fruit for centuries for its aphrodisiac qualities.

Mulberry Yields

Trees grown from seed will start to fruit in the 5th or 6th year. Cultivar whips should start to fruit in the 2nd or 3rd year.

Younger trees can be expected to yield between 3–5 kg in the first 2–4 years when fruiting begins. A mature tree of 20 -30 years will produce well over 300 kg of fruit.

To harvest the trees we hold a net under and shake the branches. As the fruits ripen at different stages starting in early June and ending in early August inevitably you shake down some unripe fruit but the majority of the fruit is in good condition.

If you coppice or pollard the tree you will need to wait a year before they start to produce fruit again as the flowering buds are borne on the second year growth.

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Mulberry Coppice/Pollard

Mulberry is the one of the fastest growing temperate trees I know of. The wood is relatively strong and the small diameter poles make good stakes and larger diameter poles are good for fuel logs. The trees respond very well to coppicing and pollarding. If you have deer pressure in your area pollarding is best as the regrowth is out of reach.

We keep a few trees in the garden as pollards and regularly cut the regrowth back for the rabbits and pigs. We pollard as opposed to coppice as the trees are planted among a density of fruiting shrubs (Blackberry, Raspberry, Aronia and Goji). Other trees we allow to grow larger and cut back on a 5 year cycle to provide fuel logs and poles for vegetable supports and fence posts.

There is a rich history of mulberry coppice in Asia and it’s becoming more popular across the world as a biomass producing plant particularly for animal food.

Mulberry leaves as a forage crop for livestock including monogastrics (pigs, rabbits, etc.), ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) Our pigs and rabbits enjoy it, but our chickens and ducks are not into it.

Coppice shoots from a 20 year old stool have showed a mean annual diameter increment of 1.5 cm and a mean annual height increment of 1 m. Early growth is very fast: 4.5 m in the 1st 2 years. Currently we have multiple regrowth shoots of 2.5–3 m tall in one year from the tree pollarded in the above video. To get an idea how fast these trees grow that tree was 8 years old (from seed) and has been pollarded 3 times to date.

Mulberry Polycultures

Mulberry are excellent plants for use in polycultures. They are tolerant of partial shade so suitable in the edges of an under story of a larger tree, are not very nutrient demanding or competitive. They tolerate pruning very well and can be used for chop and drop plants grown between fruit trees or in hedgerows. If fruit production is priority they can be given a position in full sun and although they grow tall and wide, by lifting the lower branches you can accommodate a range of productive and useful plants underneath them.

Perhaps one of my favorite polycultures in our home garden features a grand old Mulberry tree — Morus alba. The tree is approx. 10 m tall and 12 m wide. As previously mentioned the mulberry overhangs the pig pen and some of the chicken coop. The slow but sure delivery of fruit fall for 8 weeks in the spring and summer is much appreciated by the animals.

On the edges of the canopy we have a fig tree and a Cornelian Cherry that both produce exceptionally well and we have planted a few hazels on the south side last year.

Directly under the Mulberry tree there is an Apple and a Pear tree. Both trees are semi standards but the shade of the Mulberry has resulted in the trees taking on a dwarf habit. The Apple produces a negligible quantity of small red fruits (we keep it as it serves as part of the electric fencing in the pig pen) but the Pear tree on the western side of the tree produces a reasonable quantity of delicious Pears.

Under and around the Pear we grow Asparagus plants with Chinese Lantern and Tuberous Comfrey ground cover and we have a few black currant plants. Finally there are two patches of Raspberry one to the north of the tree and one on the eastern edge of the canopy.

We also have 4 raised beds to the east of the mulberry where we grow tree saplings that appreciate the shade of the Mulberry during high summer.

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Agroforestry Potential Of Mulberry

There is great potential for Mulberry in agroforestry systems. It’s deep-rooting habit and drought tolerance makes it a suitable tree for Alley cropping with grains grown in between alleys. The fast growing nature of the tree and it’s tolerance to wind makes it great candidate for windbreaks and biomass belts. Furthermore the high quality animal fodder that can be produced from the trees make it an excellent choice for silvoarable systems although the fodder is generally cut and carried as the plant is not suited to continuous grazing.

I’ve included mulberry in a few agroforestry designs the most recent being an alley cropping system with single row mixed contour plantings (with Hazel and Pea Tree). The alleys in between the rows will be used for free ranged pastured poultry and growing grains for the poultry.

Mulberry Cultivars

We have some great mulberry cultivars on offer this season. The cultivars have been developed in Bulgaria and are suitable for all climates where Mulberry grows well. We have a selection of heavy cropping plants as well plants grown for biomass/animal fodder or sericulture. All of these plants are resistant to all major pest and diseases.

The price is €14 per tree and we are offering 10% discount for orders over 30 trees.

Mulberry cultivars — Fruiting Plants

White Mulberry — Morus alba — ‘Vratza 24’

Fruit — Abundant large purple fruits ripening from June — August

Sex and Pollination — Dioecious — Female Plant will produce fruit with a male pollinator such as ‘Kokuso 27’ or any fruiting mulberry nearby

Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

Leaves — Large entire leaves (22 cm x 19 cm). Thick and nutritious

Fodder Potential — The leaf yield under rain fed conditions with planting distance 3 m x 1 m, 3300 trees per hectare is higher than 13,000 kg/ha.

Water needs — Very drought tolerant

White Mulberry — Morus alba — ‘Vratza 18’

Fruit — Abundant Large purple fruits ripening from June — August

Sex and Pollination — Dioecious — Female Plant will produce fruit with a male pollinator such as ‘Kokuso 27’ or any fruiting mulberry nearby

Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

Leaves — Large entire leaves (29 cm x 21 cm). Thick and nutritious

Fodder Potential — The leaf yield under rain fed conditions with planting distance 3 m x 1 m, 3300 trees per hectare is higher than 14,000 kg/ha.

Water needs — Very drought tolerant

Kagayamae Mulberry — Morus kagayamae — ‘Kinriu’

Fruit — Abundant large black fruits ripening from June — August

Sex and Pollination — Dioecious — Female Plant will produce fruit with a male pollinator such as ‘Kokuso 27’ or any fruiting mulberry nearby

Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

Leaves — Large entire leaves (25 cm x 19 cm). Thick and nutritious

Fodder Potential — The leaf yield under rain fed conditions with planting distance 3 m x 1 m, 3300 trees per hectare is higher than 16,000 kg/ha.

Mulberry cultivars — Biomass and Fodder Plants

These plants have been selected specifically for vigor and their huge nutritious leaves.

White Mulberry — Morus alba — ‘Kokuso 27’

Fruit — Fruitless

Sex and Pollination — Monoecious — Majority male flowers

Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

Leaves — Large lobed leaves (22 cm x 17 cm). Thick and nutritious

Fodder Potential — The leaf yield under rain fed conditions with planting distance 3 m x 1 m, 3300 trees per hectare is higher than 16,000 kg/ha.

Japanese Mulberry — Morus latifolia — ‘Kokuso 21’

Fruit — Fruitless

Sex and Pollination — Monoecious — Majority male flowers

Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

Leaves — Large entire leaves (23 cm x 17 cm). Thick and nutritious

Fodder Potential — The leaf yield under rain fed conditions with planting distance 3 m x 1 m, 3300 trees per hectare is higher than 15,000 kg/ha.

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

Man and fig have come a long way since then but have remained very much good friends, travelling and setting up home together all over the world where summers are warm and dry and winters are cool.

During this article we’ll be focusing on the common fig — Ficus carica. We’ll look at fig types, hardy figs, fig cultivation, fig reproduction, fig propagation, fig polycultures, and growing figs commercially.

Overview

Latin name — Ficus carica
Common name — Common Fig — Adriatic Fig — Symrna Fig
Family- Moraceae (same family as Mulberry)

Native Range — A temperate species native to southwest Asia and the Mediterranean region (from Afghanistan to Portugal)

Description — A tall deciduous shrub or small tree reaching a height of about 10 m. Single or multi stemmed

Uses — The fruit is eaten fresh, dried in confectionery, brewed as an alcoholic beverage or used as a laxative. The fruit is a source of calcium, sugar, iron, copper, carbohydrates, potassium, and vitamin A. The leaves are used as potherbs or fed to livestock and dried can be used for tea. The tree is also grown for shade and has value in the ornamental garden.

Growing period — The fruiting cycle is 120–150 days. Some varieties produce one crop per year, others two. Trees have been known to live as long as 200 years.

Growing conditions — Fig thrives best in areas of moderate relative humidity and can be grown at higher elevations in areas of low rainfall. Fig requires some dry months particularly at the flowering and fruiting periods and some sources state that they require some winter chilling. They are light demanding plants and will grow best with 8 hours or more of direct sunlight. Fig can grow in virtually any soil type but prefer a sandy-clay loam within a pH range of 6.0 to 8.0 tolerating soils with high lime content. A soil depth of 1–1.5 m is sufficient for growth. Figs can also grow in rocky areas from sea level to 1,700 meters.

Growing behaviour — Figs are a shallow fibrous rooted species, although depending on location, the roots may spread laterally and vertically. Figs may have single stemmed tree like growth or multi-stemmed shrub like growth and often send up suckers from the base of the tree and spreading branches that are low to the ground. Fig wood is weak and decays rapidly. The leaves emerge in late spring and in our climate drop shortly after the first frost in late autumn. Fig fruit is borne on the new spring new growth although some plants produce two crops known as the breba crop. The breba fruit develop at the nodes or leaf axils of last year’s wood.

Fruit — Fruits generally ripen from August — October depending on cultivar and climate. Some trees produce what is called a breba which are fig fruits that develop during the spring on the previous year’s shoot growth, followed by the main fig crop that develops on the new shoot growth and ripens in late summer or fall. In cold climates the breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts.

Ecology — Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. Seed is dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter the seeds in droppings. We often find various bees and wasps feeding on openings in the fruit made by birds. We’ll leave some of the fruit on the tree for other organisms and always have plenty of figs.

Fig Types

Figs can be divided into four distinct categories

• Common: do not require pollination for fruit set

• San Pedro: requires no pollination for the first crop (called the breba crop) but requires pollination of the second crop

• Caduceus/Smyrna : requires pollination in order to set fruit

• Capri or Male: usually non-edible figs in which the pollinator lives

Within these categories one can find over 750 cultivars!! The fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop.

Fig Cultivars/Varieties — Fig cultivars have many unique characteristics such as compact to spreading growth habits, fruit colour, shape, taste and size, plant hardiness etc.

Cold Hardy Fig Cultivars — Although often considered a Mediterranean plant there are many figs that have been cultivated to withstand cold climates in some cases withstanding winter lows of -20 C.

Young figs are more sensitive to cold winters than larger figs so it’s best to over winter young plants perhaps even grow on in a pot until a good root system has established especially if you are growing Fig on the limits of the climatic conditions they are accustomed to.

According to some sources figs less than two to five years old are likely to die back to the ground during very cold winters. Very wet winter soils make a fig more likely to perish. Good site selection and soil preparation along with a generous winter mulch can go along way to prevent this.

It’s possible that one of the hardiest figs on the planet was developed here in Bulgaria. A cultivar named ‘Michurinska 10’ is commonly grown here at altitudes above 1000 m elevation in areas that receive extreme winters lows of below -20.

The fruits are small but numerous and sweet when ripe which can be from early as late August through to early October. In a hot dry summer like we have had this year, the fruits can be left on the tree to dry and keep well into the winter. Picking them ripe ,splitting them in two and leaving in the car parked in the sun for a few days is also very effective.

The hot long summers here ensure a good reliable crop from these plants each year. From time to time when we have very cold winter the top growth dies back but in the spring new growth arises from the base of the plant and can produce a good crop of figs that same summer. 30–50 stems may come up in the spring and we found it good practice to remove at least 50% of the new growth before fruit sets and then thin down to no more than 8–10 of the best stems in the autumn after a harvest. We’ve also experienced a frost crack on our fig tree caused by a sudden drop in temperature. The top growth died off that year but new spring growth quickly replaced it and we received a good crop of fruit that same summer.

We grow a range of hardy fig cultivars from our nursery. You can find more info on our hardy cultivars below.

For a list of other cultivars suitable for growing in temperate climates with cold winters  see here.

Fig Cultivation — How to grow Fig

Where to Plant your Fig — Figs require full sun all day to ripen palatable fruits. Some cultivars can become enormous, and will shade out plants growing beneath so select a site that the tree can grow into. Trying to reduce size by pruning the branch length causes loss of crop. 

Figs can be successfully grown in pots and this will moderate the plant size. For container grown plants, replace most of the soil in the tub every three years and keep the sides of the tub shaded to prevent overheating in sunlight.
In areas with short (less than 120 days between frosts), cool summers, espalier trees against a south-facing, light-colored wall to take advantage of the reflected heat. In coastal climates, grow in the warmest location, against a sunny wall or in a heat trap.

Fig Root Invasiveness — Fig tree roots generally are very invasive, although much depends on the cultivar, its planting location, and the overall soil quality. Most fig trees, if they are planted in optimal conditions, spread their roots far and wide and sometime the roots can choke out other plants and can damage sidewalks, driveways and other objects in their paths. Fig trees usually do best on the outskirts of a garden or surrounded by plenty of open space. Around the Mediterranean basin they are often planted in the large driveways and car parks covered with loose crushed stone, to provide a shady spot to park. They seem to grow very well in these conditions despite the compacted soil environment.

In order to minimize root invasion some growers will plant trees in pots or build underground retaining walls to keep the roots structured.

Celeste or Malta fig trees typically keep their root systems more or less contained, larger trees such as the brown turkey fig trees have more of a tendency to dominate a space.

Fig Pruning — Pruning is recommended only during the initial years when trees should be trained according to use of fruit, such as a low crown for fresh-market figs. When growing a breba crop, since the crop is borne in the leaf axils of the previous year’s wood, winter pruning will result in the loss of the following year’s crop. If a mature tree dies back during a cold winter the following spring will bring many new shoots from the buried wood just below ground level. In such instances we have found it good practice to thin these out to all but 10–12 stems. Further thinning (of the now bush like plant) will help improve access within the crown for picking fruit, improve air circulation and will result in fewer but higher quality fruits. We remove any mature stems that are touching each other or appear crowded.

Fig branches and leaves contain a milky sap that is irritating to human skin so when pruning and harvesting it’s good to wear gloves.

Irrigation requirements — In most Mediterranean countries figs are grown as rain-fed but the most critical period of irrigation is early spring before rapid shoot and fruit development. 750 mm of annual rainfall is considered sufficient to produce a good crop. Rain or heavy irrigation during fruit development and ripening can cause the fruits to split.

Harvesting Figs — Figs must be allowed to ripen fully on the tree before they are picked. They will not ripen if picked when immature. A ripe fruit will be slightly soft and starting to bend at the neck. Harvest the fruit gently to avoid bruising. Fresh figs do not keep well and can be stored in the refrigerator for only 2–3 days. Some fig cultivars are delicious when dried. They take 4–5 days to dry in the sun and 10 -12 hours in a dehydrator and around 2 -3 days on top of the car dash board(parked in a sunny spot). Dried figs can be stored for six to eight months.

Care and Maintenance — We have found our figs to require very little care. In the past we have added 20 L of mature compost to the base the trees and mulched with a bale of straw before winter. Our trees are located next to the veggie garden and another next to a chicken run so I assume they forage for the nutrients they need from those spaces.

Pests and Diseases Problems : Problems are mainly encountered when trees are under stress and good practices will prevent most problems. We have never experienced any disease or pest but do lose some of the crop to birds.

In some cases, a young, healthy fig tree undergoes proper pollination and fruit set, then drops all its fruit suddenly. This phenomenon is usually caused by overfeeding. It may take three to four years for the fig to recover from over-fertilisation and produce a crop that ripens and stays on the tree. Avoid using shop bought liquid feeds instead use good compost fed at the base of the plant (20 L in the spring) and you should not experience this.

Fig Propagation

Figs are generally propagated by cuttings and for commercial plantations by tissue culture. We have had success with hard wood cuttings taken in late autumn/ early winter planted inside and outside into a free draining medium (50% river sand 50% sieved compost). We’ve also had good results from division (digging out sections of the root system that has sent out new shoots) and layering. The key to success is to water the cuttings well during dry periods. Another good method that can be practiced at anytime of year is taking 15 cm cuttings of 2nd yr growth and placing then in 10 cm of water. Clean the water when it starts going green (every 5–7 days) and plant out when a good root system starts to form.

Fig Reproduction

Fig pollination is fascinating but not great news for fig loving vegetarians :)

What we call the fig fruit is actually a flower or to be more precise an inflorescence — a cluster of many flowers and seeds contained inside a bulbous stem. Because of this unusual arrangement, the seeds — technically the ovaries of the fig — require a specialized pollinator that is adapted to navigate within the fruit and here begins the story of the relationship between figs and fig wasps.

The queen of the fig wasp is almost the perfect size for the job and enters through a tight opening in the fig called the ostiole.

Once inside, the queen travels within the chamber, depositing her eggs and simultaneously shedding the pollen she carried with her from another fig. This last task, while not the queen’s primary goal, is an important one: she is fertilizing the fig’s ovaries. After the queen has laid her eggs, she dies. Once the queen’s eggs hatch, male and female wasps assume very different roles. They first mate with each other and then the females collect pollen while the wingless males begin carving a path to the fig’s exterior. This activity is not for their own escape but rather to create an opening for the females to exit. The females will pollinate another fig as queens. The males will spend their entire life cycle within a single fruit.

Bad news for vegetarians thus being when you eat fig you probably eat wasp however, common fig types have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting as the fruit can develop through parthenocarpic means. Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.

Companion Plants for Figs — Fig Polycultures

The fig tree, having an extensive shallow root system and in maturity casting a heavy shade, generally inhibits the growth of plants directly growing under the crown. Over the years, however, I have observed the below list of plants growing along with the fig, some of which we planted others naturally occurring.

I leave our fig trees to branch low to the ground for ease of picking the fruits. This results in a very deep shade cast under the plant and as a result the Comfrey and Artichoke produce little biomass in the summer. Under plantings do grow well before the fig leaves emerge in late spring, Tuberous Comfrey in particular forms a dense mat and flowers profusely before dying back during the summer when the fig is in full leaf.

When companion planting with fig, it is best to select early flowering plants that yield before May and can tolerate deep shade during the summer months. We have experimented with bulbs (included below) that utilize nutrients during the dormant season, provide early nectar and pollen to bees and other pollinators, and provide beauty contrasted against the grey frame of the winter fig.

Here are a few of many fig polycultures you will find all over the Turkish Riviera (Türk Rivierası)

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Growing Figs commercially

We are not growing figs commercially and have no experience of this. The below info is largely taken from online resources.

Orchard Establishment: Figs are planted in winter and early spring. Spacing depends on the variety chosen. The average planting density is 3 x 4 m or 833 trees per hectare. Some experimental orchards have placed 2,666 trees on a hectare but I’m not sure how that has turned out

Figs respond well to organic matter and in most countries well rotted farmyard manure is applied to the soil before planting. At least 20 L are added per tree.

Caprification: In orchards requiring Caprification the male trees are grown in an area separate from the orchard. One male tree is required for every 50 female trees. The male figs are hung in stretch poly bags in trees in the orchard when figs reach button size.

Irrigation: Depending on soil types and farmers’ preferences, sprinklers and drip are used. The equivalent of 750 mm annual rainfall is sufficient to produce a good crop.

Drying Figs: Dried figs are allowed to ripen on the tree and then dried for between 3 to 4 days depending on the area. Figs can actually dry on the tree as is the case in Turkey, Iran, Greece and the U.S.A. where after they fall to the ground are then vacuumed up.

Pests and Diseases: Fig stem borer, mealy bugs, fruit fly, aphids and scale are all insects which can affect the health of a tree and rust, mosaic virus and endosepsis are the main diseases seen in figs. These problems are mainly encountered when trees are under stress and good orchard maintenance will prevent most problems.

Soil Cultivation: Although figs tolerate different soil types they are more productive in soils with a sandy-clay loam profile. A depth of 1,5 m is sufficient for root development but water logging will adversely affect growth and productivity. The ideal pH range is between 6 and 8. When planting many figs testing should be done for root nematodes that are known to affect figs.

Fertilisation: Figs can perform well under soil conditions unsuitable for other crops but recent studies prove that nutrients exert an effect on yield and quality. Nutrient requirements differ according to variety but leaf analysis will indicate fertilizer requirements. Drying varieties are more sensitive to nitrogen and adversely affect fruit size and colour. Too much nitrogen also affects the bribe crop adversely. A good application of compost (20 -40 L under a mature tree 10–20 for young trees) along with regular comfrey mulching should be sufficient fertiliser for your fig trees

Pruning: Along with fertilization this has become one of the most important tools in the modern orchard. In Japan most orchards are trained for 2 metres, 400 mm from the ground. New shoots train onto a trellis of 2 metres in height which allows for easier picking. To provide for more early or breba crops summer tip pruning is done. Timing of pruning can play an important role in determining later picking/ripening of fruit.

Harvest: Figs are harvested when ripe as ripening does not advance after picking. Depending on the area, summer fruits will start ripening towards the end of August and depending on the cultivar will
continue for between 4 to 8 weeks until the end of October. At the start of ripening fruit is picked every 3 days increasing in frequency to every day when the harvest is at its peak and reducing to every 3rd day as the harvest tails off. Harvesters can usually pick about 100 fruit per hour.
Figs for shipping are collected daily just before they reach the fully ripe stage, but yield to a soft pressure, usually indicated by small cracks in the skin. They should be immediately refrigerated. For 
commerce, choose a cultivar that parts readily from the branch and does not tear the neck.

Thanks for reading, I hope you enjoyed it. Please leave a comment below if you have any questions or something to add and I’ll include it in the below section.

Feedback from Readers

Robbie Brewster - Growing Figs in the Aegean. Young trees need watering at the first signs of stress in summer or they defoliate to survive. After 2 -3 years they can survive 5 months without rain. The fruit is super sweet under these conditions..

Kate Ryan - From the area surrounding Puget Sound in the western Washington portion of the US.

Our only reliable crop of figs comes from the breba crop, rarely from the main crop, that usually don’t ripen until October-ish, which is when it just is too cold for more than a few (if you are lucky) to make it to maturity. In an unheated greenhouse I can get maybe half of the main crop before the chill wipes the rest of them out. Spring freezes are usually well done by the time the breba crop is anything more than a tiny lump.

Sally Cunningham from www.gardenorganic.org.uk - In the UK it's traditional to grow figs inside a coffin-like box made of paving slabs buried vertically in the soil with extra slabs underneath to prevent the tree from rooting through - see picture. Alternatively we often grow them in containers. Most old manor houses which had a big kitchen garden have a fig or so around the place but they are rarely productive nowadays.

We usually get a single crop a year unless it's a very mild year, but have to fight the squirrels and birds, especially blackbirds, for them.

Otherwise, the biggest problem here is rats and bank voles who love the sweet sticky sap - they chew the unprotected bark away in wet or cold weather and are very hard to stop. I've had to resort to wrapping all my figs in pots with strips of cooking foil around the base of the trunk and large shoots as soon as the have shed their leaves.

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs, and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars and eBooks.  We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like.  It's your purchases that keep our Project going.

You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.  

References

Thank you to the knowledgeable people on the www.ourfigs.com forum for your review of the post and suggestions for improvement.

• http://www.citrogold.co.za/Figs%20An%20Overview%20Citrogold%202011.pdf

• http://www.adrianosfigtrees.com/varieties.html

• http://www.esa.org/esablog/research/the-story-of-the-fig-and-its-wasp/

• http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropView?id=1071

• https://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/fig.html

During this post we'll take a close look at these incredible plants including how to grow them, the uses of Medlar and growing them in polycultures and in permaculture gardens.

Overview

The common Medlar  - Mespilus germanica, is widely considered the only specie in the genus Mespilus, however if you're looking online, you might stumble upon a second proposed species in the same genus, Mespilus canescens although this plant is also known as ×Crataemespilus canescens, or Stern's Medlar.  So there's a story behind how this particular plant has an alias.

Jane Ellenbogen Stern, an environmentalist from Pine Bluff, Arkansas was leading a bird-monitoring project back in 1969 at a small remnant of tallgrass prairie and bottomland woods when she noticed an unusual plant that resembled a hawthorn (Crataegus).  She observed that this plant was notably shrubbier in nature, and covered in white flowers. She collected a branch sample and notified regional biologists and experts, and this news spread among other plant professionals who reportedly spent nearly fifty years attempting to provide a proper identification and name. The plant is now recognized as an unusual naturally occurring hybrid and is officially known as Stern’s medlar (×Crataemespilus canescens), but still referenced in some literature as being a Mespilus.

We'll be focusing this post on Mespilus germanica, a plant that we've inherited in a few of our gardens and learned to love and even respect for its uniqueness.

Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs, and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars and eBooks.  We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like.  It's your purchases that keep our Project going.

You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.  

Medlar - Mespilus germanica 

Latin name - Mespilus germanica
Common name - Medlar
Family -  Rosaceae

History - Mespilus germanica is a plant with a long history. It is known to have been around for over 3000 years and the fruit was commonly eaten from Roman through to Medieval times when it was quite popular.

There are several references to Medlar in literature - mentioned by everyone from Shakespeare, Chaucer to D.H. Lawrence, although often less than favourably, probably due to the fact that the fruit must be bletted before eating, leading to negative connotations around the idea of rotting but also due to its shape. Apparently for nearly a millennium, the fruit was referred to as "open-arse , an obvious reference to the appearance of its large calyx.  Since then Medlars have declined in popularity, and these days they are generally more unusually found when compared to other fruits which were taken into cultivation, like apple and plums, and they are certainly far less common than imports like fig or persimmon.

Growing Range -  USDA 5-8. Medlar is native to southwest Asia and southeast Europe, feeling right at home on the Balkan peninsula but growing well in north and western Europe too. Widely grown in the UK, it has reportedly naturalized in southern parts where winters are milder. 

Description -  Medlar is a slow-growing and small tree typically growing to 6m tall in a fairly compact form.  It is generally a short-lived tree, with a life span typically in the range of 30 -60 years. Highly ornamental large white flowers appear in May and dot themselves among the foliage, creating a pretty display

The fruit that emerges from these stunning blooms is not quite so delicate in its appearance. Fruits are round, around 3-6cm long, brown with a fuzzy outer coat, and a large, open calyx. As forementioned this appearance led to Medlars being rather crudely referred to, but perhaps a more appealing description of the fruit generally is that it resembles a cross between a small, russetted apple and a large hawthorn. The fruits ripen from late autumn - early winter  (depending on species and cultivar) and have a luxurious and delightful texture and flavour, a heavenly puree that usually contains 5 pips or seeds. The fruit does not always ripen fully in cooler temperate zones such as Britain and needs bletting (a process of leaving fruit to go past the ripe point).  The leaves are dark green, large, simple, elliptic to oblong; 8-15 cm long with quite possibly some of the most breathtaking autumn colours to perhaps rival even the cherry tree. Bark is grey-brown and plated on a gnarled trunk, further enhancing the decorative qualities of this tree.

Sexual Reproduction -The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is self-fertile. The self fertile flowers which grow at the end of the stem are simple with five white petals which open up in late spring - early summer.  Behind the flower are 5 green sepals, which become prominent when the fruit is formed (the large calyx or open arse forming!). Fruits are borne on the tips of the main shoots and side growths.

Light Preferences - Medlars thrive in full sun but can grow well in partial shade. For optimum fruit production plant in a sunny position.

Water needs - Young trees planted out in the spring or autumn need regular watering while establishing. The soil should be free draining as the plants will not grow well in waterlogged soils. It appears to have some drought tolerance, but not typically a tree we would choose for a dry area.  Having said that, the established and more mature trees in our garden cope very well with hot and dry summers, needing no extra irrigation.

Habitat -  Woodland edge and hedgerows, in a sunny, fairly sheltered location.

Hardiness  - USDA -5 - 8  Tolerates a wide range of climates, and also may fruit in some cooler climes due to the fact that the bloom time is comparatively late (May - June) so the blossom is rarely damaged by frost. Although some sources describe the Medlar as being unable to tolerate strong winds, in our experience they fare quite well, although strong winds around the bloom time may cause damage to the flowers.

Ecology - The flowers are attractive to many insect pollinators, as well as bees, and the fruit provides a valuable food source for birds, particularly as the fruits ripen in the early winter when there is often not much other fruit around.

Where to Plant

Climatic Limitations - The Medlar has successfully spread to regions as diverse as south-east Asia to north-west Europe. That plant will not produce fruit in tropical climates as it requires winter chill (similar to apples) to flower. They grow well, crop well and produce good quality fruit in nearly all parts of Europe. They should always be planted in full sun for optimal fruit production but will produce good quantities of fruit in partial shade (4-6 hrs of direct sunlight a day).

Soil -  Ideally Medlars like a well drained slightly acid (pH 6.5) loam soil but are easily pleased and  will tolerate a wide range of soils except for very alkali or chalky soils.  Free drainage is essential, as they dislike waterlogging.

Location - Medlars can be grown in the lower canopy or canopy for a smaller forest garden. For cultivars the rootstock will ultimately determine size of the tree, along with other factors such as growing conditions, and the chosen pruning and training regime. 

Pollination/Fertilisation - The species is hermaphrodite (has both male and female organs) and is pollinated by bees and other insects. The plant is self-fertile, although will benefit from cross pollination.

Feeding, Irrigation and Care

Feeding -  Medlars generally have very low fertilizer requirements, When planting out new trees top dressing the planting hole with  20 - 30 L of compost and repeating this in early spring for the first 2 years will be more than enough to get them going. After this they should be fine, especially so if you are growing the tree in polycultures.  

Irrigation -. Young trees should be mulched well each spring and irrigated for the first 2-3  years with 30 L of water every 2-4 weeks without rain.  Once established, Medlars do not usually require irrigation unless you are experiencing an extremely dry period for a prolonged period of time.
 
Weeding - Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep mulch each spring and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice when the plants are young. As the trees mature they grow well amongst other plants of all kinds.

Pruning - Once established Medlars don't need regular pruning. To encourage a good strong tree like-form early on, cut away all suckers and lower branches so that the tree has a clear trunk.  Medlars then only really need pruning to remove dead, damaged, diseased or crossing branches. Pruning should be performed towards the end of dormancy, in February/early March.

Harvesting - Medlars are ready to harvest once all the leaves have dropped off in the autumn, and one or more hard frosts have occurred, kick-starting the bletting process. Fruits should never be pulled roughly - when they are ready to be picked the fruit stem should break away with ease. That said, you can harvest them before a frost and leave them inside to ripen, although this can take a while which may be viewed as positive feature, as the fruit can be at the point of eating in the heart of winter when fresh fruit from the garden is a treat indeed.

Propagation - Cuttings of mature wood are traditionally grafted on Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) rootstock. However, Hawthorn tends to sucker heavily leading to a rise in popularity of using Quince rootstocks. It's possible to use seedling Mespilus germanica rootstock which has better compatibility and produces semi-dwarfing trees although Medlar are tricky to grow from seed, as they have very hard and impermeable seed coats and apparently won't typically germinate until they have gone through two winters.

Potential Problems

Pest and Disease -  Medlar suffer few disease and insect pests and we've never experienced any problems with the Medlars we grow or any that we've seen. While researching this blog, however, it appears that if any disease is going to trouble the Medlars it may be Brown Rot.  As the name suggests, brown blemishes appear on the fruit which then softens until it becomes mushy, and if it continues to spread then the fruit becomes entirely rotten.is one of the most common problems. 

Medlar Uses

Fruit -  As a rule of thumb, Medlars should remain on the tree until the leaves start to fall in the autumn and until after the first frost or two of the season. We usually start harvesting the fruits in November, although there are variations in this from year to year, and depending on when we encounter our first frost. Sometimes this is as late as mid December, which is actually great timing as it's pleasant to have access to fresh fruit at that time of the year. If you are picking them and they feel hard then they need to be stored and made edible through bletting.  We usually place the fruits on a windowsill, or in a wooden fruit bowl and find that they soften within a couple of weeks. If you're picking the fruit soft then it should be fine to eat immediately

Wood - The wood of the Medlar tree is ideal for turning as it it hard, fine grained and a beautiful colour. Can be used to make walking sticks and vases and is virtually unbreakable. 

Erosion control:  Medlar typically has medium depth roots and so has some potential for erosion control. 

Soil Improver and Biomass: Medlars are often grafted of Quince rootstocks that will sucker freely in some cases and can make a good source of biomass if pruned annual and applied to the base of the tree as mulch.

Animal Fodder - Pigs and sheep reportedly graze and enjoy the leaves, while the fruits provide decent forage for wildlife in the early winter. Pigs enjoy the fruits as do rabbits.

Leaves -  The leaves are dark green, spear shaped and can grow to be fairly large - as much as 15 cm long and 4 cm wide. The autumn colours are one of the best in the garden, with leaves turning a spectacular and deep red in the autumn. 

Landscaping - Being low maintenance and drought tolerant make Medlar very easy plants to incorporate into different polycultures. They can be considered for the upper canopy, lower canopy or shrub layer

Hedging / Windbreak - There are some reports of Medlars growing wild in hedges, although this is likely due to seed spread from birds who have eaten the fruits of cultivated varieties.  Although not a plant you typically associate as a hedging plant, Medlars can be quite shrub-like in their form, and since they are fairly wind tolerant, they may well be great candidates for a windbreak or hedge. As forementioned, it's worth noting that strong winds (in particular cold spring winds) can damage the flowers and reduce insects ability to pollinate and will therefore affect the amount of fruit production.

Bee Fodder - Bees are very fond of Medlar flowers. The nectar arises from a yellowish circle at the base of the blossoms and attracts a large variety of bee species including honeybees and bumblebees.

Medicinal uses - Some reported medicinal benefits are that the fruit is a natural laxative, yet we also found that it has a reputation for helping with diarrhea. This conflict of action may be dependent on which stage of ripeness the fruit in consumed at.  The fruit also may help heal or eliminate oral abscesses. Seeds contain the toxic hydrocyanic acid and so caution should be taken.

Victoria Bezhitashvili, a member of our 2018 Polyculture Study team, wrote a thesis on the traditional knowledge and use of Medlar in rural Bulgaria. Victoria has kindly shared her work and you can find it here.

Medlar Yields

A mature Medlar tree can yield some 80 to 90 kilos of fruit.  Trees generally start producing from between 2 -  4 years of age.

A young Medlar of 4 years producing well in our market/forest garden, Aponia 

If you're harvesting the fruit after a frost or two, the chances are the fruit may be bletted and ready to eat, in which case it will fall off the tree easily as you pick. If you harvest before a frost then the fruit will be hard and inedible and need to blet after period of time indoors. Pick in late autumn and store in a cool, dry place for a period of time that can range from 2 weeks - short months. The flesh should be soft and mushy when edible. The flavour is like an exotic apple with a rich butter-like texture.

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Want to learn how to design, build and manage regenerative landscapes? Join us on our Regenerative Landscape Design - Online Interactive Course.

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We look forward to providing you with the confidence, inspiration, and opportunity to design, build and manage landscapes that produce food and other resources for humans while enhancing biodiversity.

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I look forward to having you join us!

Medlar Polycultures

We published an article about a Medlar polyculture called Medlaronia many years ago. It's a productive polyculture that will provide an early-mid winter harvest of delicious Medlar fruit, highly nutritious Aronia berries, a year-round crop of excellent salad onions, and has the added benefits of mineral accumulation and nitrogen fixation.

Due to the relatively small size of a mature Medlar tree, it's a suitable tree for smaller gardens and you can easily fit a number of fruiting shrubs and herbs under and around the canopy. We have an excellent Rubus idaeus cv. - Raspberry patch growing under a mature Medlar in the forest garden with a carpet of Allium ursinum - Wild Garlic  growing under the raspberries and the Medlar itself sits under a Castanea sativa - Sweet Chestnut and still produces large quantities of fruit each year.

Medlar cultivars -  Fruiting Plants that we offer

Medlar -  Mespilus germanica -  'Mesten'  and  'Mesten Seedless'

Fruit - Abundant fruits ripening from November - January
Sex and Pollination - Hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by bees and other insects.The plant is self-fertile. 
Hardiness - Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as
Leaves -  Large, dark green and spear shaped 
Water needs - Moderate. Some drought tolerance.

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

The only bad thing you could say (and it's a biggy) is that Pomegranate could be partly responsible for all of humankind's toil and tribulation. It's thought that it was most likely a pomegranate and not an apple that tempted Eve, the result being, getting booted out of the Garden of Eden forever.

During this post we'll take a detailed look at this special plant, including its incredible history, how to grow it, the uses of Pomegranate, growing Pomegranate in polycultures, permaculture, and agroforestry, and we'll introduce some hardy cultivars that we're offering from the nursery this season. 

Overview 

Pomegranate belongs to the small family Lythraceae which contains just one genus Punica and two species, the world-famous Punica granatum - Pomegranate and its largely unnoticed sibling Punica protopunica, which grows only in the Socotra archipelago in the northwestern Indian Ocean. P.protopunica differs in having pink flowers and smaller, less sweet fruit. 

For the rest of this post, we will focus on Punica granatum

Punica granatum - Pomegranate

Latin name - Punica granatum
Common name -Pomegranate
Family - Lythraceae
History - There is evidence that suggests pomegranate was cultivated by humans way back in 4000 BC which makes it one of the earliest fruit crops to be domesticated and planted. It is believed to have originated in the east of Mesopotamia (modern-day Iran) and moved westward over time. Its spread can be traced by archaeological evidence with carbonized remains of pomegranate peels found from the Early Bronze Age in Jericho and Arad as well as in Iraq, Lebanon, Greece, and Spain. By the Middle Bronze Age 1500-1200 BC, pomegranate grew throughout the Levant and appeared in Egypt.

The pomegranate features often in the art of Ancient Egypt. These opaque glass bottles in the form of a pomegranate are considered to be from the Ramesside period 1295–1070 B.C. now on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

The fruit also had spiritual significance and Ancient Egyptians were buried with pomegranates in the belief that the qualities of sexual energy and fertility that the blood-red exterior and seedy interior of the pomegranate conveyed would encourage a successful rebirth.

In fact, Pomegranates feature often in historical art and literature of many cultures, appearing in the Quran three times, the pomegranate is often mentioned in relation to Heaven and Allah's gift to humankind. In Hinduism, Persian and Chinese culture, like the Ancient Egyptians, the pomegranate is considered a symbol of fertility and procreation, associated with earth goddesses. Continuing on the theme of fertility and procreation, The Song of Solomon from the Bible features a series of lyrical poems that seem to celebrate the sensuous and mystical quality of desire between a man and a woman with the Pomegranate referenced at least six times in the book, including this one 'Come forth, my beloved, Let us go forth to the field, let us see if the vine has budded and the Pomegranates are in bloom. There I will give you my love"

Probably the most bizarre reference to Pomegranate I've come across is the Greek myth of Persephone and Hades. In short, Hades, a nasty God that lived in the underworld kidnapped an amiable goddess called Persephone. Although initially a captive, Persephone grew to love Hades and ended up becoming queen of the underworld. Persephone's mother, Demeter (goddess of the Harvest), went into mourning for her lost daughter and all green things ceased to grow. Zeus was not impressed and commanded Hades to return Persephone. Hades, unhappy at the prospect of losing his wife, endeavored to find a workaround. It just so happens there was a "rule of the fates" that anyone who consumed food or drink in the Underworld was doomed to spend eternity there. So he offered Persephone a Pomegranate of which she ate just a few seeds. The plan did not work entirely and it was decided by Zeus that every year from then on, for each seed she ate she would have to return to the underworld with Hades for a month. And so she returned to Hades and during these months, winter would come to the world. When she would make the return trip, her mother would be filled with joy and everything would start to grow again. This (or some variation of this) became the highly plausible ancient Greek explanation for the seasons :) 

Growing Range -  Today Pomegranate is cultivated on five continents. The main production countries are India, Iran, Turkey, China, and the USA, where more than 76% of the world's production is being produced. The world surface dedicated to the cultivation of pomegranate trees is more than 300,000 ha and world production is probably higher than 3,000,000 t. The map below shows records of places on earth where Pomegranate is grown. You can find the interactive version of this map and visit each recorded point on the discover life website here.

Pomegranate is primarily mild-temperate to subtropical and naturally adapted to regions with cool winters and hot, dry summers. It grows well under semi-arid conditions and thrives well under hot, dry summers and cold winters provided irrigation is available. 

Description -  A medium-growing deciduous shrub/small tree, that can be easily pruned to develop into a single-stemmed tree but naturally is multistemmed. Can reach a height of 6m and a width of 6m. The leaves are glossy and have a narrow, lance shape and some plants may have spines (thorns) along their branches. Flowers emerge in April(northern hemisphere), about a month after bud break.  I've often seen flowers developing throughout the summer when the tree has already set fruit, as you can see in the photo on the left taken in Albania - Fushë-Krujë in August. The fruits are botanically referred to as a berry

Life Span - There are reports of Pomegranate trees living up to 200 years old in Europe however the plants are considered to be productive for around 30 years with peak fruit production occurring at around 15 years of age. 

Habit -  The plants sucker from the base and naturally take a shrub form.  More often than not pomegranate is grown as a large multi-stemmed shrub but can be pruned to single-stem trees for orchard layouts. The plants take very well to trimming and can be trimmed to a variety of shapes making them suited for hedging. (see polyculture edible hedge below). There are dwarf cultivars available that typically reach a height of just a meter and produce fruit that is a miniature version of a standard-sized Pomegranate. 

Sexual Reproduction - The same pomegranate plant can carry three types of flowers; namely hermaphrodite, male and intermediate forms but the majority of these flowers are hermaphrodite and therefore we can say that the tree is generally self-pollinated. 

Like most fruit trees, Pomegranate will benefit from cross-pollination that is carried out by bees and other insects. For cross-pollination to occur at least two different cultivars of pomegranate that flower during the same period, should be planted.  Flowers develop on the tips and just below the tips on spurs of newly developed branches of the same year. 

There are double-flowering cultivars available that are grown chiefly for ornamental value. Interestingly, several of these double-flowering cultivars from India, Russia, China, and Turkmenistan also produce edible fruit. 

Hardiness - USDA: 7-11. We are attempting to stretch the outer limits of this using cold hardy cultivars in well-thought microclimates. We are growing them in our gardens 6a although we have just started to grow them. The last 2 years (winters have been mildish) and they have not reached fruit-bearing age yet. We'll see. 

Light Preferences - Prefers full sun, but can cope with dappled shade as long as it has long periods of the day exposed to the full sun

Water needs -  The trees are drought-tolerant; however irrigation is necessary during tree establishment and is critical for commercial fruit production. Without irrigation during prolonged periods of drought, fruit production will be lost, and substantial injury to young trees is likely. 

Ecology -The flowers of the Pomegranate are extremely attractive to bees and hummingbirds. In its shrub form (especially plants with spines along the branches) it will likely provide refuge to a host of wild animals and invertebrates. 

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Where to Plant

Climatic Limitations - Most Pomegranate cultivars are hardy down to -10C, with the hardy cultivars reportedly okay with temperatures of -15 C. The tree is most resistant to the cold in the winter months and tends to be more susceptible to frost damage prior to reaching full "dormancy" in the fall and at bud break in the spring. There are many reports of the necessary chill hours (exposure of the plant to temperatures below 7 °C ) that range from 100 to as high as 400 hrs.  However, these recommendations mostly do not have sufficient scientific documentation. Most Pomegranate cultivars or varieties do not necessarily need winter chilling.

On the flip side,  Pomegranates are extremely heat-tolerant and perform best when temperatures are above 30 degrees C for at least 120 days a year. They can also be grown in subtropical and tropical climates where they are evergreen and will flower throughout the year, depending on the cultivar.  High levels of atmospheric humidity form a limiting factor to the establishment of a commercial Pomegranate plantation. Flowers may fail to set or abort if conditions are too humid. For commercial growers, you can find a great overview of climatic limitations for Pomegranates here.

Soil - Pomegranates are adaptable and can grow reasonably well in many soil types but as with the majority of fruit-bearing plants, they prefer well-drained soils. Long periods of overly wet conditions will harm the trees. They will not grow well in heavy clay that has drainage issues. Trees can tolerate moderately acidic to slightly alkaline soils and grow best in a soil pH range of 5.5 to 7.2. They also can handle moderate levels of salinity in the soil,

Location - It's a good idea to research a cultivar that will do well in your particular hardiness zone. There seems to be quite a variation in height within the cultivars on offer, so this will need to be considered. For a stand-alone tree, chose a location that receives at least 6 hours of full sun a day and is sheltered from the prevailing winds. If you live in a wet area then planting the tree on a slight slope will aid drainage. There should be space for adequate airflow around the tree to encourage pollination, especially in the spring during bloom.  For orchard planting aligning the orchard rows, north-south will maximize sun exposure. Consider drainage options in regions with high rainfall.

In colder climates, the correct microclimate can make all the difference. Avoid planting in frost pockets and aim for planting next to South facings walls or large rocks that will provide warmer conditions.

Pollination/Fertilisation  -  Planting near other cultivars that flower at the same time will encourage cross-pollination that will result in better yields. The pollinating partner tree should be 4 -6 m away for the best results. 

Feeding, Irrigation, and Care

Feeding - Pomegranates require little fertilization. When planting out new trees top dressing the planting hole with 20 - 30 L of compost and repeating this in early spring for the first 2 years will be more than enough to get them going. After this, they should be fine.

Irrigation - Pomegranates are drought tolerant but water is the most critical nutrient for the establishment of young Pomegranate trees, particularly during the first year after planting. Furthermore for fruit production and general tree health watering is likely to be necessary. To illustrate this point, take a look at the Pomegranate orchards below. This photo was taken in Dalyan, Turkey, Summer of 2022, on the same day in the same area. One of the fields had a drip irrigation system set up the other did not. Not only will the unwatered plants not produce fruit, but, following the stress of a drought summer, their growth will probably be stunted for years to come. 

How much you water will depend upon the variables on your site, such as soil type, drainage, rainfall, etc. In our region, it isn't unusual to have a period of at least 12 weeks without rain during the summer months and extending into the autumn.  That being the case we apply around 20-30L per tree every 2-3 weeks without rain. Avoid excessive watering close to harvest time to avoid fruit split and preserve the sweet flavor. 

Weeding - Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep mulch each spring and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice when the plants are young. As the trees mature they will grow well amongst other plants of all kinds.

Pruning - Pomegranates produce fruit buds on the new season's growth, so pruning via reducing the size of the branches, before fruiting occurs, will result in no fruit for that season. Pomegranates will often be pruned in order to realize a tree form. This is usually carried out by thinning out crowded stems from the middle and cutting down suckers. If you let a pomegranate sucker freely it will put a lot of energy into growing branches and foliage,  resulting in lower yields. In addition to this, the weight of the fruit can be significant and cause branches to snap out.

To train your Pomegranate into a single- or multi-stem tree, wait until the plants are 2 to 3 years old and at least 1 - 1.5m in height. You should select 1 to 3 suckers that you want to keep to form the main trunks of your tree. Remove all others by cutting them off at the ground. Sometimes a trunk may die back or get injured. If this happens, remove the old trunk and allow a sucker/shoot to grow and replace it.

The single-trunk approach has the advantages of easier orchard floor maintenance and reduced costs associated with pruning out suckers, while opting for multi-trunk gives you more outs - if a frost causes serious damage to a section of the tree, you can simply remove the damaged area, and train a vigorous sucker to take its place, rather than lose the entire tree.

Harvesting - Harvesting time is typically 6 - 7 months after flowering which will normally be September and October. Pomegranate doesn’t continue to ripen after picking from the tree so you need to wait until they are ripe before picking. The general consensus seems to be that when you notice the first fruit splitting, the whole tree can be harvested.  Another way to tell ripeness is to wait for the brilliant color and then tap its bulb. If you hear can a metallic sound, the pomegranate is ready to be harvested. It's best to use pruners to cut the fruit from the branch, leaving the stem attached to the fruit. 

Yields - The plants should start to bear fruit in the 5th or 6th year and by the 10th year, trees should be established. Production can be between 100 to 150 fruits per tree. In a well-managed orchard, the average annual yield can be as high as 200 to 250 fruits per tree.  Peak production is generally reached by the time they're 15 years old. Annual yields from wild trees in the Himalayas averaged 32kg per tree

Propagation - Hardwood cuttings are the most successful method of propagation and they should be 10 - 20cm in length. Taking suckers from the base of the plant often ends up being the most decent wood for cuttings. 10 to 20 in (25-50 cm) long. Place the cuttings in beds with 1 or 2 buds above the soil for 1 year before planting out. Propagation through seed is also possible and Pomegranate seeds have high germination rates, although it will be potluck what type of fruits you receive from seed-grown plants. Grown from seed it will take 5 or 6 years before they start to bear fruit.

Pest and Diseases - Below I have listed what seems to be common diseases of Pomegranates, although encouragingly, they are fairly resilient, and if they do strike appear to account for a small percentage of damage to overall yield. Properly caring for your plants will further reduce the likelihood of problems

• Alternaria fruit rot (Alternaria alternate) if you've ever opened a pomegranate only to find it partially brown inside, you might have encountered Alternaria fruit rot, also known as Black Heart. The pathogens may overwinter on plant debris, in the soil, and on unpicked or dropped fruit.

• Aspergillus fruit rot (Aspergillus niger). External decay is usually close to the calyx of fruit, with the rind of the fruit sometimes turning a lighter shade of red, or sometimes with some brownish-yellow discoloration. Inside the fruit, there is black powdery sporulation and a brownish, often mushy decay of the arils(seeds). 

• Gray mold (Botrytis cinerea). Gray mold infects flower parts at bloom time and lay lurking there during fruiting when they activate after either being washed post-harvest or stored at high humidity. Eating fresh will avoid this issue.

Pomegranate Uses

Fruit - Pomegranate is a highly nutritious fruit, high in fiber and vitamins B6, K and C, and also contains potassium and folate. Each little seed (aril) is encapsulated with the tasty stuff and 100's of these arils are beautifully packed into the peeling.  There is an art to getting to the fruit without spraying yourself with dark red staining juice, an art I have not yet mastered. This method sounds good. Cut the pomegranate in half through the equator, then hold it over a bowl of water, cut side down. With a wooden spoon, smack the skin assertively and repeatedly and the seeds will rain down.

The dried fruit is used as a seasoning in dal, fried samosa, stuffings, and chutneys and molasses can be made from the fruits, prized in Persian cuisine. The juice from the fruit is my favorite way to enjoy the fruit. For how to juice a pomegranate see below. The skin can also be used in cooking and has been used to make yellow and green dyes for fabric.

Flowers - In the spice bazaar of Istanbul, you will find Pomegranate flowers among a myriad of others. They are used to make pomegranate tea, a beverage considered as having medicinal value since ancient times. 

Ornamental - Pomegranates are often grown for their ornamental value with double-flowering cultivars available. The versatility of the plant's form makes it a great option for shaping.

Hedging - due to their natural inclination to grow in the form of a shrub, they really make excellent and attractive hedging plants that have the added bonus of providing a superfood treat.

Wood - Due to its thin trunk, the pomegranate tree is not often harvested for its timber but as the yellow wood is very hard, some wood crafters use it to make decorative pieces, walking sticks, and other artifacts. In Morocco, the bark of the pomegranate tree, with its high tannin level, was traditionally used for curing leather.

Soil Erosion/Reclamation: A deep rooting tree, it is important in soil erosion control, and is planted along rivers to stabilize banks. Being drought-tolerant the tree is suitable for arid and semi-arid zone afforestation. 

Ecology - Pomegranate flowers are highly attractive to bees, whose activity positively affects yields.

Biomass Plants -  Due to their suckering nature and drought tolerance, they should make a reasonable candidate as a biomass plant, producing an annual supply of arisings via trimming.  Leaf litter from pomegranate is slow to decompose, providing a slow-release mulch.

Medicinal uses -   Various studies have been carried out on antioxidants and they are known to reduce inflammation and promote cell health. Pomegranate juice contains considerably higher levels of antioxidants than most other fruit juices, red wine, and green tea and is currently the subject of several research studies into its role in cancer prevention. It has conclusively been shown to help treat hypertension. The juice of a single pomegranate has more than 40% of your daily requirement of vitamin C and is a good source of folate and Potassium. 

Pomegranate Polycultures, Permaculture, and Agroforestry

Pomegranates have good polyculture potential. They are drought and wind tolerant making them a good option for hedging and support and seeing as they produce suckers and take well to trimming, they can be used as chop-and-drop plants or grown as part of a polyculture for biomass if provided with enough water. We've included Pomegranate as part of an edible hedgerow/windbreak, although we have not yet implemented this design we intend to once we are sure that the Pomegranate cultivars we are growing will survive a very cold winter. 

Polyculture Edible Hedge - The primary purpose of the polyculture is to provide a low-growing/low-maintenance edible boundary hedge that, when mature, can keep livestock in/out (not including goats or drunk adolescent humans). Other purposes include biomass production, food/fodder production, pollination support for orchards and market gardens, and habitat provision to a range of borgs. The polyculture can also serve as a fast-forming windbreak. 

An illustration of the hedgerow when planted out and at maturity 

The Polyculture is modular and can be repeated to make up longer hedges within a landscape 

Illustration of Lifted Standard Trees spaced at 10m intervals within the hedge row

You can find the full profile of this polyculture here - Polyculture Profiles - Perennial Infrastructure Polyculture - Edible Hedge/Windbreak/Biomass - Terminus

Agroforestry Potential - Pomegranate makes a good option for growing in a semiarid climate, being drought tolerant and tolerant of wind it can be an important shade tree within a silvopastoral system. The dense multistemmed habit of the plant also makes it a good choice within a shelterbelt given that the plants can withstand windy conditions, although you would not expect to get high yields of fruit growing this plant in these scenarios.  I included Pomegranate in a shelterbelt design for a site in Albania, the main reason being it was already growing wild in the windy area where the belt was proposed. The purpose of the belt was to slow the wind before it reached the cement factory preventing the wind from carrying dust beyond the factory.  

Shelterbelts are highlighted in green with wind direction and intended zone of protection.

Modular planting scheme that repeats throughout the length of the shelterbelts. Pomegranate is included in the Leeward Row(the side not facing the wind directly)

Illustration of the belt when planted out and at maturity 

Mixed Orchard and Intercropping - On good soils and provided with irrigation, Pomegranate can grow well with grapes in Mediterranean countries. I have often seen trees planted on the perimeter of mixed citrus and olive orchards and with 8m wide alleys between rows, it's possible to maintain the growth of light-demanding crops between tree rows.

Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs, and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars and eBooks.  We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like.  It's your purchases that keep our Project going.

You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.  

Pomegranate Cultivars 

We have two Pomegranate cultivars available this season. These cultivars have been developed for colder climates and are hardy to -15 C. We have been growing these plants for the last few years and although they have survived the winters so far and are growing well, they have yet to produce fruit so we can't vouch for how good the fruit tastes at the moment

Punica granatum ' Acco 126'

Description: Delicious, dark red fruit, large in size​ (600-700 g per fruit) One of the sweetest cultivars that grow outside the Mediterranean zones of Europe 

Fruiting Period: Ripens around September 15 to September 25

Pollination: Self-fertile, but benefits from a pollination partner - 'Wonderful'

Disease Resistance: Good - resistant to common diseases and pests

Form: Multistemmed and suckering. If winter dieback occurs, the suckers that emerge the following season will be true to form 

Punica granatum 'Wonderful'

Description: Large fruits that have Sweet and tangy flesh is ideal for juicing, also great eaten fresh.

Fruiting Period: September to October 

Pollination: Self-fertile, but benefits from a pollination partner - 'Acco 126'

Disease Resistance: Good - resistant to common diseases and pests

Form: Multistemmed and suckering. If winter dieback occurs, the suckers that emerge the following season will be true to form 

Both cultivars are 15 EURO per tree. All orders over 500 EURO receive a 10% discount and we can also provide bulk orders of 100 plants or more for heavily discounted prices. If you would like to place an order send us an email at balkanecologyproject@gmail.com or contact us on Whatsapp at +359988342649 with your order. We look forward to hearing from you. 

How to make Pomegranate Juice 

During the ripe seasons, throw a stick anywhere in Turkey and you're probably going to hit a Pomegranate juice stand. It's a perfect drink in the hot weather and has super nutritional value and taste and juice is a more convenient way of ingesting the beneficial health compounds that are present in Pomegranate fruit.

A press (like the photo above) is the easiest way to get the juice out but in absence of this tool, separate the arils (gem-like seed things) and then press them in a cheesecloth, or use an electric blender followed by straining to remove the seeds. Juice should be consumed fresh or stored in the refrigerator for only a short period of time. That's all for this post. 

Support Our Project

If you appreciate the work we are doing you can show your support in several ways.

• Become a member of the Bloom Room with a $70 annual subscription to our Substack where you can access the content in our Regenerative Landscape Design Course , a member forum and more.

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• Join us for one of our Onsite or Online Courses

• Comment, like, and share our content. Sharing is caring !

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

Overview

Persimmon belongs to the Genus Diospyros a part of the family Ebenaceae, a family well represented in tropical Africa and Asia. The plants were evidently given the nod of approval from our Greek ancestors, as the name we use for the genus today was how the Greeks referred to the plant, with Dios meaning divine. The plants are thought to have been consumed as a food source long before the Hellenistic period, way back in the prehistoric era in the far east, where they today remain a highly favoured fruit, with over a thousand different cultivars in existence.
The genus Diospyros contains almost 400 species, but when we speak of Persimmon there are generally three species we are referring to; Diospyros virginiana (D.virginiana) is the species native to North America — hence its common name American persimmon; Diospyros lotus — Date Plum is of central Asian descent, and; Diospyros kaki (D.kaki), refers to Asian persimmon, which is originally native to China! There is also a fair bit of hybridization between these species.

An easy way to tell the plants apart when not in fruit is by the leaves. D.kaki has significantly rounder leaves in comparison to the other two species, while D.lotus has glossy leaves. Both D.lotus and D. virginiana have leaves that are lance-shaped.

All species are relatively easy to grow, mostly free from pests and diseases and crop reliably. 
D. virginiana is not generally considered a commercial crop, although they are very productive. The fruit of D. virginiana is smaller (plum sized) than that of D. kaki (peach sized) and it reportedly has a uniquely rich texture with a high sugar content, tolerating much lower temperatures than D.kaki and D.lotus. For gardens with very cold winters of USDA hardiness 5 or lower, D. virginiana is probably the only persimmon you will be able to grow. D.lotus aka Date Plum is a great plant for warmer climes, also with small and abundant fruits. My only experience of the fruit has been a positive one, picking them dry from the tree in December in the Pontic mountains of North Turkey. They tasted very date like and plummy indeed.

The fruit you are likely to be most familiar with in the stores is that of Diospyros kaki — Japanese Persimmon. The fruit of D. kaki is delicate, luxurious and juicy with a gelatinous texture. There are 1000’s of cultivars that are classified into two general groups: astringent and non-astringent. The astringent cultivars need to entirely soften before being palatable and are generally picked hard and ripened indoors, whereas the non-astringent fruit will ripen hard and can be picked off the tree ready to eat like an apple. If your only experience of eating persimmon is of an unripe astringent cultivar plucked from a tree in late Autumn, I’m sure you never intend to try one again and are completely perplexed by why anyone would even consider eating such repugnance. I encourage you to try again with a ripe and ready fruit :) Seeing as almost all commercial production today is of D. kaki, this species will be the subject of this post.

Asian Persimmon- Diospyros kaki

Latin name — Diospyros kaki
Common name — Asian Persimmon, Kaki Tree, Sharon Fruit, Fruit of Sharon. The Bulgarian name — “Pайска ябълка” meaning “heavenly apple” seems an appropriate title.
Family — Ebenaceae

History — The origins of D.kaki are thought to be in China where it has been cultivated for over two thousand years. The plants spread to neighbouring countries including Japan around the eighth century AD, where it still enjoys celebrity status with the dried fruits being used as decorations during the New Year holiday. It would have found its way into the middle east and Eastern Europe with traders, no doubt, and was highly valued in those lands, where it is still commonly grown today. By the late 1700’s, cultivation had begun in Western Europe and at some point in the mid-1800’s, it was being grown in California.

As mentioned above, cultivars of D.kaki are categorized as astringent and non-astringent. It’s interesting to note that all original cultivars were astringent until a mutant tree arose at some point in Japan that produced non-astringent fruits. This chance occurrence triggered breeding programs around the world for non-astringent cultivars.

Growing range — Indigenous to the mountainous regions of China, and possibly through to Japan and Korea, today Persimmon are cultivated all over the world in a wide range of climate conditions that range from subtropical coastal regions, to warm inland temperate areas Around 70% of the production today remains in China. Some reports say Persimmon are found wild in China, growing up to 2400 m (8000 ft) altitude. The bulk of commercial cultivation in Europe takes place in Italy.

Description — Growing at a medium rate, D.kaki can reach 9–12 m in height and 8 m in width. A multi-trunked or single-stemmed deciduous tree, it can definitely be described as ornamental with a tropical twist. Its life span is thought to be around 40–60 years. The fruits somewhat resemble a bizarre cross between a tomato and a pumpkin and remain on the trees like lanterns long after the strikingly beautiful autumn leaves have dropped. Leaves in the growing season are alternate, simple, ovate and up to 18 cm long and 10 cm wide. Autumn colors are quite breathtaking.

Sexual Reproduction — The species is mainly dioecious, which means that each individual tree is either male or female. The pollen from the flowers on the male tree should be carried via insects (generally bees) to the flowers on the female tree for the fruit to set, however, many popular cultivars are parthenocarpic which means that they only produce female flowers and will set seedless fruit without pollination. When growing these cultivars there is no need to be concerned about the plant’s gender, however, they will benefit from (and in some cases will need) the pollen from another cultivar, so growing multiple cultivars is recommended. Female flowers are single and cream-colored, while the male flowers are typically borne in clusters of threes, with a pink tinge to them. If growing trees from seed, it may take five years for your tree to bloom before you can clearly identify which gender your tree is.

There is not much in life more useful than a seed, but the Persimmon seed takes it to another level. Give up the complex computer modeling, sack the legions of climate scientists, and forget launching satellites into the thermosphere to gather meteorological data. Instead, forecast your winter weather by breaking into a Persimmon fruit once it is soft, removing the seeds, and slicing them down the middle to see which piece of cutlery is best represented! If it looks like a fork, winter will be mild; a spoon, there will be a lot of snow; and if you see a knife shape, winter will be brutally cold. Can someone please tell the World Meteorological Organization? ;)

Light Preferences — Persimmon prefers full sun, but can tolerate light shade. We have an excellent plant growing next to, and partially under, a Juglans regia — Persian Walnut in the garden of our crew house. You can see the two trees in the below image. The main trunk of Diospyros kaki — Japanese Persimmon is approx 5 m away from the main trunk of the Juglans regia — Persian Walnut, and both trees are thriving so far. We may need to lift the lower limbs of the Walnut in the future to make some space, but otherwise they both appear quite comfortable. More on this polyculture later.

Water needs — D.kaki can tolerate drought fairly well, but you will get the best fruits when the tree is properly irrigated during drier periods. Like most fruit trees, it’s very important that it receives enough water during the flowering period and during fruit swell. We sometimes can have periods of up to 12 weeks without rain and do not irrigate our tree, but our tree is mature with an established deep taproot that can harvest water from depth. Newly planted trees will certainly require more care and attention for the first 3–5 years.

Habitat and Biodiversity — The flowers are attractive to a range of pollinators, including honey bees and bumblebees, and the fruits provide a great source of winter food for birds. We always leave some on the tree as provision for the birds.

Hardiness — USDA 7–9 — D.kaki does best in areas that have moderate winters and relatively mild summers. We have an astringent variety in the garden of the crew house that must be at least 20 years old and survives our winters, experiencing extreme lows of -20 degrees C and producing well. The plant is located near the house and sheltered from the northerly winter winds, so this may be contributing to its success.

Where to Plant

Climatic Limitations — Persimmons have proved to be highly adaptable to a wide range of climate conditions, ranging from subtropical coastal regions to warm inland temperate areas, but it may not fruit in tropical lowlands due to lack of winter chill. The plant is considered suitable for all zones favourable to Citrus, but those zones with the coldest winters induce the highest yields. It is suited to semi-arid and high humidity atmosphere and can be grown at altitude 0- 2500 m. The plants are not very tolerant of the wind.
Soil — Persimmons have a reputation for being very easy to grow, tolerating many conditions. They do well in a wide range of soil types, but favour deep, well-drained loam soils with a good supply of organic matter. Heavy clay loam soils that are prone to water-logging should be avoided. Optimum tree growth is in the range of pH 6.0–7.5.

Location — The main thing to consider when choosing a spot for your tree is that it should receive a good amount of light, ideally 6–8 hours per day during the summer. Care should be taken to protect from strong winds. You should also consider the fact that you will need space to climb the tree to harvest the fruits. Different cultivars grow to different heights, so consider the height and spread of the Persimmon you want to grow, and make sure there is enough room for the tree to reach maturity.

Pollination/Fertilisation — Most Persimmon cultivars are female trees that can produce seedless fruits in the absence of male plants but as mentioned above it’s best to grow a few cultivars to encourage better yields. It is worth noting that sometimes inconsistencies occur and occasionally male flowers may arise on female trees, or perfect flowers may transpire containing male and female parts that self-pollinate. Generally speaking, two weeks after the leaves emerge from buds, flowers should appear. Bees are the main pollenizers for Persimmon trees, and some native bees will successfully transport pollen between trees a hundred meters away.

As a side note and testament to the resilience of these plants, following the dropping of the atomic bomb on Nagasaki in 1945, where all else was destroyed a D.kaki tree miraculously survived, albeit scorched and weak. Fifty years after the bombing, Mr. Masayuki Ebinuma, an arborist who lived in the area, treated the damaged tree, and it started to bear fruit. Mr. Ebinuma saved seeds from the fruits and carefully grew them and has started to hand them out as a symbol of peace. You can find more info on this wonderful project here. I’ve just applied for some seeds :)

Feeding, Irrigation and Care

Feeding — Most trees do well without feeding once established, but when planting out we always add 20 -30 L of compost to the soil surface and a thick layer of straw mulch atop the compost. It’s good to pull the mulch 10 -15 cm away from the trunk during the winter to keep moisture from accumulating next to the trunk and rotting the collar.

Planting — The optimum time to plant trees is in the autumn, as the roots have time to settle and the tree can put on growth more quickly come the springtime, but it is also perfectly acceptable to plant out in spring before the tree breaks dormancy. The best plants to use are bare rooted 2nd year on the graft trees that have only been transplanted once before. D.kaki has a long taproot which is sensitive, and care should be taken when transplanting, as any damage done can be slow to heal. When planting or transplanting don’t be alarmed if you notice that your tree has black roots — it is quite normal and doesn’t necessarily indicate that the health of the tree is compromised.

We have a range of excellent cultivars available from our Nursery that should start to fruit and flower 2–3 years after planting.We can deliver to anywhere in Europe from late November — early April. Click on the banner below for cultivar details and send us an email balkanecologyproject@gmail.com to reserve your plants or place an order.

It’s worth mentioning here that newly transplanted young Persimmons may not leaf out until June in the first season after planting. Taking that further, while researching this blog post I came across a forum where some growers described their newly planted Persimmon trees remaining completely dormant the first year after planting, but leafing out without problem in the second year. On another occasion when planting out a Persimmon cultivar, we saw plenty of growth from the base of the plant, but nothing above the graft. After a while when the leaves developed on the new growth, I could see that the tree was grafted onto Diospyros virginiana — American persimmon, and the graft had not taken.

Weeding — Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep layer each spring, and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice when the plants are young. As the trees mature, they grow well among other plants of all kinds and weeding is not necessary as a standard practice.

Pruning — Before pruning Persimmons, you should know that flower buds and fruit are borne in the autumn and will be ready to bloom during the following spring. Cutting back the tips of branches will, therefore, remove the flowering buds and consequently the fruit.

Persimmon trees are known for being generous and can bear fruit prolifically, but this can be too much of a good thing and cause the branches to break. Any broken branches should be removed to reduce the risk of infection. If a tree becomes too tall, picking fruit may become difficult and thinning out the taller limbs may be necessary.

Harvesting — The non-astringent cultivars produce fruits that can be eaten straight off the tree, but the astringent types should be picked to ripen inside at room temperature on a windowsill. When they soften they can be enjoyed by eating the pulp with a spoon, rather like eating yogurt from a pot. We harvest our astringent fruits in late autumn when the fruits are yellow-orange. When you gently press the side of the fruit and leave a dent, it is ready to eat. It should be so soft that picking it up risks rupturing the skin. If you are in a hurry to eat your heavenly parcels of goodness, I’ve read that placing the fruit into a paper bag along with an apple speeds up the ripening process. As I write, I am trying this method out in comparison with leaving some fruits on a windowsill.

Propagation — You can propagate from seed, but there is no telling what the fruit will be like so grafting is the most common method of propagation for these plants. You can use the seed to grow rootstocks, and if so it’s best to use fresh seed collected in the autumn and sow immediately outside or in a cold room. Germination usually takes between 2–3 weeks following 60–90 days of cold stratification.

Grafting should be conducted during the dormant period, before vegetative growth begins, on rootstocks with stems at least 1 cm in diameter. The scion wood should be about 12 cm long with 2 to 4 buds. Three rootstocks are generally used — D. kaki — most preferred and compatible with all cultivars, D.virginiana — Tolerant to drought and waterlogging and D.lotus that is incompatible with nonastringent cultivars.

As with most fruit trees, there is a very low success rate for hardwood and softwood cuttings.

Potential Problems

Pests and Disease — Persimmons have few serious disease or pests — another favourable attribute — but listed here are two well-known causes of illness in Persimmons, neither of which I have personally experienced:

• Crown Gall — rounded growths or galls can develop on the Persimmon’s branches, caused by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which enters the plant through wounds in roots or stems, and stimulates the plant tissues to grow in an distorted way. The roots also develop similar galls or tumors which harden. The risk of your tree becoming infected is minimized by pruning in the dormant season.

• Anthracnose — A fungal disease, thriving in wet conditions, and often appearing in spring targeting the vulnerable newly formed growth including twigs, leaves and fruits. Identifiable by tiny black spots that appear on the leaves and then develop into larger lesions. The tree may lose its leaves starting at the bottom branches. Clearing leaf fall and autumn debris, as well as pruning back, is thought to help control this condition as the fungus overwinters in the twigs and bark.

• Branch break can be a problem during years of bumper crops. As the fruits mature the excessive weight can snap out large limbs. This can be avoided by pruning out the smaller fruits when you see the tree is full of them. This can also help reduce the risk of receiving no fruit the following year.

Persimmon Uses

Fruit — Astringent varieties when left to ripen to be almost at the point of turning rotten often develop a very good flavor that is far superior to non-astringent forms. However, astringent varieties can also benefit from being left to become softer. The dried fruits are very popular and seedless fruits are excellent for drying whole. D.kaki fruits are nutrient-dense — a good source of Magnesium, Calcium, and Phosphorus as well as high in Vitamins A and C.

Wood — Persimmon wood is very strong, but also has a very high shrinkage rate meaning it can move and be unsuitable for structural construction. It is used in woodturning, and used to be very popular in the production of golf heads when wooden clubs were used. Persimmon wood is used for paneling in traditional Korean and Japanese furniture. More specific information about the properties of Persimmon wood can be found at The Wood Database.

Erosion control: A potentially useful species for small scale erosion control due to its deep taproot. You would probably not use cultivars for this type of planting, but plants grown from seed may be worth trying.

Animal Fodder — The fruits are very nutritious and farm animals relish them, especially pigs, however, the leaves are not palatable and animals seldom eat them or damage newly planted specimens.

Leaves — Persimmon leaves are high in fiber, vitamin C, amino acids, magnesium, and contain tannins which can help digestion. While researching this blog I was surprised to learn that Persimmon leaves are sometimes used in Sushi dishes. More commonly, though. they are often used as a tea. The leaves can be steeped in boiling water in both fresh or dried forms, and are said to be good for metabolism.

Landscaping — Persimmon naturally adopts a dome or pyramidal behavior, with a rather expanded crown and high ramification. This makes it is possible to train the tree to grow using techniques that align with this natural tendency. Vigorous and semi-dwarf cultivars are suitable for espalier specifically palmette training, if wire supports are provided, particularly in exposed situations. Such systems have the advantage of reducing wind damage to branches and fruit, and possibly encouraging earlier production and even higher yields.

Biodiversity — I’ve not looked too closely at the organisms attracted to Persimmon, but for sure bees and other pollinators feed on the flowers and nectar, while birds will feed on fruits left on the trees over winter. The crowns are quite open, and I’ve not seen any nesting going on in the trees. Flowers typically bloom in May making Persimmon a fairly late emerger in the spring. This means the tree offers pollen to bees at a time when most other fruit tree flowers have finished.

Hedging — I’ve not seen or tried these plants in a hedge, but I see no reason why some of the smaller cultivars would not be very suitable, so long as they are reasonably well protected from any prevailing winds. They take well to pruning, and have largish leaves that would provide an attractive screen from late spring to autumn.

Medicinal uses — D.kaki have high anti-oxidant activity, but this is variable and cultivar specific. Some astringent varieties show a very high antioxidant activity and may help to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes and a wide range of cancers. They have an anti-inflammatory effect on the body which can only be a good thing as inflammation is one of the major factors in the development of more serious and chronic conditions. Here’s something worth knowing — Persimmon apparently appears to alter and reduce the rate of alcohol absorption and metabolism, and thus improve the symptoms of a hangover :) The fruit is used for a variety of medicinal purposes, that interestingly, depend upon its state of ripeness. For example, juice from the unripe fruit is said to be helpful in treating hypertension, while dried ripe fruit is used to help bronchial complaints.

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Persimmon Yields

D.kaki reaches peak production at 10–11 years, but can continue to be very productive for decades. Eight-year-old trees can be expected to yield 20–40 kg of fruit per tree, and a fully grown tree from 150–250 kg.

Persimmon Polycultures

D.kaki has great potential for use in polycultures. The fact that they break out into leaf fairly late can be used as an advantage while planning a polyculture, and this along with the tree crown breaking quite high means there can be a shrub layer incorporated into the design. These features also offer a decent opportunity for spring greens to be grown in the herb layer.

They are a fairly slow-growing tree, which also means they can be interplanted for the first 12 years or so with annual crops, or other fruit and nut trees and shrubs.

We’ve been including Persimmon in more and more polycultures in our gardens, however I’m not yet convinced Diospryos kaki can handle the cold of our winters in the exposed areas of the garden, and we have lost a few plants over the years. The most promising demonstration of how these plants can be grown in a polyculture that I’ve seen is from two older trees — one in the garden of our crew house, and the other a fine specimen in our neighbour’s garden. We’re also trying Persimmon out in our polyculture orchard (see below).

Persimmon with Walnut and Fig

The Persimmon tree in the garden of the crew house grows quite happily next to a 20-year-old Juglans regia tree and shows no adverse effects from this. To the rear of the Persimmon is a mature Ficus carica which also appears to be flourishing. The below illustration shows the placement of these plants.

I’ve not included the layers beneath the trees as the area close to the house is paved and there is seating area directly under the Persimmon. However, the west side of the Persimmon has a number of shrubs in a hedge and a diversity of herbs growing at the base. The Prunus persica is self-seeded and not at all productive, so we’ll probably remove that next season and add currants and raspberries in this area.

Persimmon in our Polyculture Orchard

Last year we planted three cultivars in our polyculture orchard; ‘Hyakume’, ‘Costata’ and ‘Hira Tanenashi’ as shown in the illustration below. The good news about planting Persimmon in polyculture orchard is that being late-flowering, they will not compete with other fruit trees for pollination and will provide a succession of forage for pollinators in the garden. In this particular design, we are growing Hazel Corylus spp. in between each fruit tree as a lower canopy layer. The fruit trees are planted 4 m apart, and we have selected semi- vigorous rootstocks for each plant. The understory is left for wild native plants, including a range of herbaceous nitrogen fixers such as Lotus corniculatus, Trifolium spp. and Vicia spp.

A photo of the newly planted orchard in the Spring. Thanks, Ronan Delente from Perennial VISION Pérenne for the photo.

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Persimmon Cultivars — Hardy and Resistant to Major Pests and Diseases from our Nursery.

We have a small selection of cultivars that are high yielding with an excellent taste, and virtually resistant to disease and pests. Our plants are 2nd year on the graft bare roots with an approximate height of 100–120cm (depending on cultivar). ​​€15 per tree, with delivery available from late November — late March, to pretty much anywhere in Europe. Email balkanecologyproject@gmail.com to place an order.

Persimmon — Diospyros kaki ‘Costata’

Description: Astringent

​Root stock: D.kaki

Fruiting Period: October — November

Storage: Fruit keeps very well

Pollination: Pollination beneficial, but not necessary

Disease Resistance: Good

Persimmon — Diospyros kaki ‘Fuyu’

Description: Non Astringent

Root stock: D.kaki

Fruiting Period: November — December

Storage: Fruit stores and transports well

Pollination: Self fertile

Disease Resistance: Good​

Persimmon — Diospyros kaki ‘Hyakume’

Description: Non Astringent

Root stock: D.kaki

Fruiting Period: October — December

Storage: Usually ripens off the tree in 2–6 weeks

Pollination: Requires cross pollination

Disease Resistance: Good

Classification of Persimmon Cultivars

If you are looking to grow persimmon commercially, or just love being nerdy, it’s well worth digging a little deeper on how the cultivars are classified.

Parfitt et al, 2015 have made the following classification system;

Pollination-Constant Non-Astringent (PCNA),
Pollination-Variant Non-Astringent (PVNA),
Pollination-Variant Astringent (PVA) and;
Pollination-Constant Astringent (PCA) taken from Parfitt et al, 2015

Astringent varieties such as Hachiya, Eureka and Honan Red can only be eaten when ripe because they contain water-soluble tannin in the flesh and are inedible until soft. When ripe they have almost a translucent quality to their colour, turning a deep, dark and dusky shade of orange when they are ready to eat. As the fruits tend to ripen at different times, the standard practice is to harvest all the fruit and allow them to ripen inside at room temperature. As a rule of thumb, the astringent cultivars are somewhat hardier and ripen more well in cooler climates than the non-astringent cultivars.

Non-astringent varieties such as Fuyu, Gosho and Imoto can be eaten when firm, as the tannin content is greatly reduced the moment the fruit turns from green to orange. Non-astringent cultivars have lost their astringency by maturity and can be eaten crisp like an apple or at various stages of softness. Non-astringent cultivars generally require a warmer climate and do not ripen in cooler areas.

Now in terms of the pollination aspect of the classification system, technically speaking it is actually the seeds, and the amount of ethanol in them and not the act of pollination itself, that influences the fruit. The simplest way to understand it is that the presence of seeds (through pollination) can change the colour of the fruit’s flesh thus altering its astringency status. Pollination constant cultivars retain their original flesh color, while the flesh of pollination variant cultivars becomes darker when seeded.

To make things even more interesting, some Pollination Variant Varieties (by definition astringent when seedless) also include those that are astringent when they have several seeds, and partially or totally non-astringent when they have only one or a few seeds. Thankfully, most D.kaki will fruit without pollination (Parthenocarpic — setting seedless fruit without pollination), but if you are thinking about becoming a serious producer of Persimmon, it’s worth doing more research on this.

The shape of the fruit also varies with cultivars, ranging from spherical to acorn shaped, or even flattened. The colour of the fruit also varies from light yellow to blood orange-red. In all cultivars, the entire fruit is edible except the seed and the calyx.

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

During this post we’ll take a close look at these versatile plants, including how and where to grow them, growing them in polycultures, how they can be used in agroforestry systems, coppicing hazel, and end the post by introducing some hardy productive and disease resistant cultivars that we are offering from our nursery.

When we speak of Hazel we are generally referring to two species, Corylus avellana and Corylus maxima. The two species produce slightly different shape nuts and take different growth forms. Corylus avellana produce Hazelnuts and Corylus maxima produce Filberts. There are 14–18 species in the Corylus genus but many of the European cultivars we have nowadays are Corylus avellana, Corylus maxima or the result of hybrids between these two species. This post we will focus solely on these popular nut producing species.

Overview

Latin name — Corylus avellana, Corylus maxima

Common name — Hazel, Hazelnut, Cobnut, Filbert, Spanish Nut, Pontic Nut, Lombardy Nut.

Family- Betulaceae

History — Pollen counts reveal that Corylus avellana was the first of the temperate deciduous forest trees to immigrate, establish itself and then become abundant in the post glacial period. Humans have been enjoying hazels since prehistoric times and it is thought by some that hazelnuts provided a staple source of food before the days of wheat. Evidence of large-scale Mesolithic nut processing, some 9,000 years old, was found in Scotland and Hazels have been used extensively across the temperate zone throughout all civilizations.

Description — Corylus avellana — Grows as a small tree or large shrub commonly reaching heights of 5 m with a 5 m spread, but sometimes can reach twice that height and takes a tree like form. The leaves, that open in late April and May and fall in November, are almost circular with double toothed edges and a short pointed tip. The leafy bracts are shorter than the nut.

Description — Corylus maxima — Grows as a large shrub 6 m high with a 5 m spread. Resembling C.avellana but with young grey twigs, glandular and bristly leaves that are wider, longer catkins and leafy bracts that are tubular and closed twice the length of the nut. The nuts are also longer than C. avellana

Both species are monoecious . The male flowers are encased in catkins that brighten up the landscape in the winter. The female flowers are tiny red tassels that emerge from buds on the stems.

Sexual Reproduction — As mentioned above the plants are monoecious, producing male and female flowers on the same plant. The male flowers are held in catkins that form during the previous summer and open in the dead of winter and flower through to early spring. There are around 240 male flowers in each catkin and these produce the pollen. Give the catkins a flick in late February to see a small cloud of pollen erupt. Contrary to the wonderful spectacle of the male flowers, female flowers are almost invisible unless you are actively looking for them. They are tiny individual flowers, visible only as red styles protruding from a green bud-like structure on the same branches as the male flowers. 
A wind pollinated plant, the pollen from the catkins blows to reach the female flowers. If successfully pollinated and fertilized the female flower will grow to become 1- 4 nuts C. avellana or 1–6 nuts C.maxima .

Growing Range — Corylus avellana is native to western Asia, north Africa and most of Europe, from British Isles eastwards to Russia and the Caucasus, and from central Scandinavia southwards to Turkey. Corylus avellana is native to the Balkans and Asia Minor but is widely naturalized elsewhere.

Both species are pioneer plants found in a range of habitats. As a component of ancient forests they prefer moist lowland soil and are often found growing in the shade of deciduous trees, especially oak. They can be found in hedges, meadows and pastures, on the banks of streams, waste places, abandoned plantings, the edges of woods, on steep slopes and by paths and roadsides. Hazel grows naturally up to altitudes of 700 m

Hazelnut-producing regions of the world are all close to large bodies of water, which moderate the climate. About 70% of the world’s hazelnut production comes from the black sea region of Northern Turkiye ( I have a post about hazelnut orchards of this region here) . Italy produces about 20% of world production. Spain, France, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and the United States produce most of the rest.

Hardiness USDA — Corylus avellana — Zone 4–8
Corylus maxima — Zone 5–8

Ecology — Hazel flowers are an important source of pollen for bees and other pollinators. The pollen-bearing catkins can be available to pollinators from as early as late January — late March. Hazel leaves are used as food plants by the larvae of various species of Lepidoptera. The nuts are used by dormice to fatten up for hibernation and in spring the leaves are a good source of food for caterpillars, which dormice also eat. Hazel nuts are also eaten by woodpeckers, nuthatches, tits, wood pigeons, jays and a number of small mammals.

Where to Plant

Climatic limitations — Both species crop best in areas with cool, moist summers and mild cool winters or in maritime climates. Areas with high summer temperatures are not ideal although good cultivar selection can improve results. Areas with extreme winter cold can also be problematic. The shoots of the plants are hardy to -29 C (-20 F) although winter temperatures below -10 C (-13 F) during the flowering period may damage the male flowers reducing the likelihood of fruit set that year. 
The plants will not grow well in tropical or sub tropical climates and require a winter chilling period of 800–1200 hrs below 7 C (45 F) which is similar to apples.

Soil — Hazel tolerates a wide variety of soils from calcareous to acid, loam to clay and prefers soil that’s well drained and fairly low in nutrients; overly rich soil gives plenty of leaf growth at the expense of flowers and nuts. Hazels will not grow well in water logged and peaty soils. Shallow soils will restrict the growth and height of hazel.

Location — If growing for nut production in cold climates you should avoid planting in frost pockets, and in hot climates avoid windy sites. Hazelnut trees also cannot tolerate excessive heat or a long dry season. A sheltered area with a reliable source of irrigation is essential in hot climates.

Pollination — Hazels are wind pollinated. As mentioned above cold weather (-10 C and under) during the flowering time can destroy flowers and reduce fruit set. Heavy rain during the time where pollen is being released can also suppress the amount of pollen carried in the air and moist conditions destroys pollen viability.

The plants are in theory self fertile meaning the pollen from the male flowers can pollinate and fertilize the female flowers on the same plant. However, the blossoming times of the male and female flowers on the same plant do not always coincide and for this reason it is recommended to plant 2 or more different cultivars to increase the likelihood of pollination occurring. Wild growing hazel nearby will serve as good pollinating agents for most cultivars and there are many cultivars that work well together to ensure fuller cropping. There are some cultivars that absolutely require pollinating partners so research your cultivars well A good rule of thumb for how many pollinator plants you need to support you main cropping cultivar is 1 to 18. On sites where wet weather is common during the flowering period this can be increased. The pollinating partner should be a maximum of 45 m away and upwind from the main cropping plants.

Pollen is released from the male flowers in bursts across a 4- 6 week period in January — March. Interestingly, the pollen germinates as soon as it reaches a receptive flower but the fertilization process does not take place for another 4–5 months in June. Once fertilized the female flowers develop into nuts very rapidly with 90% growth occurring within 4–6 weeks.

Fertility, Irrigation and Care

Fertility — On good soils hazel will not need fertilizers. On poor soils, planting out with 30 L of compost (applied to the surface) and mulching well with straw and repeating this each spring for 4- 5 years will provide a good boost to growth. Planting nitrogen fixing companions can also be very effective. I have seen very healthy orchards growing in Ordu, Turkiye where the owners use the bracts left over from the hazelnut harvest to mulch the trees, as you can see in the below photo.

Irrigation — In cooler climates such as the UK irrigation is not necessary. In warmer climes with hot summers and long periods without rain, applying 30 L of water per tree every 3–4 weeks without rain and mulching well is very effective.

Weeding — Mulching plants with a 10 -20 cm deep mulch each spring and pulling weeds that start to grow through in the summer is good practice especially when the plants are young.

Pruning — When planting out single stemmed whips it’s good practice to prune the top down to 45 cm to encourage lower branching (a practice known as formative pruning). Hazel plants often sucker (send up many shoots from the base of the plant. Suckering growth should be removed to keep the stems clear and the crown less congested. Beyond formative pruning and removing suckers we don’t prune our Hazels but there is a tradition, as with most fruit trees, to prune in order to achieve an open centered goblet shaped bush.

If you are going to prune than it’s important to know that female flowers (that will form the nuts) are produced from buds on growth from the previous seasons growth. For optimal nut production you should aim to have plenty of previous years stems at least 15–25 cm long.

I read an interesting comment regarding a traditional pruning method used to increase nut production called ‘brutting’. This involves prompting more of the trees’ energy to go into flower bud production, by snapping, but not breaking off, the tips of the new year shoots’ six or seven leaf groups from the join with the trunk or branch, at the end of the growing season. I’ll be trying this on a few of our plants this year.

Harvesting — The nuts are fully ripe when the husks begin to yellow and can be picked by hand. Nuts will naturally drop over a 4–6 week period. It’s important to not pick before they are ripe as they will shrivel and do not keep well.

Propagation — We have grown hundreds of hazels from locally gathered seed and this is a very easy and reliable method to propagate these plants. Most of our seedling stock we use for coppice plants and hedging plants. For nut production we use cultivars as they generally fruit within the 3rd and 4th year after planting and you know what kind of nut you will end up with.

Seedlings can take up to 6 or 7 years to produce nuts and you never know what they will be like. Saying that, we have some great nut producing seedlings that we propagated from local plants. They appear to be more resistant to the winter cold and have been providing a reliable crop each year even after bitter cold late winters.

Another great way to propagate hazel, including cultivars that are grown on their own roots, is by stooling and layering. Stooling involves heaping soil at the base of the plant, leaving it for 12 months and then dividing the rooted stems. Layering is burying the stems in the soil for 12 months and cutting them off the main plant once the stem has rooted

Hazels that are grafted onto their own roots will send up suckers. The suckers can be dug out in the winter and planted on. The suckers can be a nuisance and will need cutting back to promote better production. Corylus colurna — Turkish hazel is often used as a rootstock as these are non-suckering and have a deeper rooting habit. Cultivars on Corylus colurna rootstocks are often very vigorous.

Potential Problems

Excessive Heat: Hazelnut trees cannot tolerate excessive heat or a long dry season. They are especially sensitive to drying in windy conditions.

Cold injury: Although a very hardy plant, when growing for nut production the trees are vulnerable during the flowering period in early — late winter. Temperatures below -10 C (-13 F) during the flowering period will damage the male flowers and destroy the pollen reducing the likelihood of fruit set that year. Because not all catkins elongate at the same time, crop damage usually is minimal if there is only a brief cold spell.

Insect/Pest: Grey squirrels are major pest of hazels. Nut weevils — Balaninus nucum can destroy the maturing nuts. Beetles lay eggs in the immature nuts. The eggs hatch into maggots that eat the maturing nut and bore out of the shell to pupate in the soil where they overwinter before hatching, mating and laying more eggs in the next crop. Clearing up the fallen nuts is good way to control this pest. Running chicken under the hazels in September can also disturb the pupae in the soil

Disease: In the US this species is affected by Eastern Filbert Blight (EFB), which is caused by the fungus Anisogramma anomola and is fatal to trees. However EFB can be controlled by a variety of management strategies and does not present a major threat to the species as a whole.
Bacterial Blight — Xanthomonas campestris pv. corylina causes leaf spotting, dieback of branches and in worst cases death. Trees under stress are most susceptible.

Suckering — Hazels can sucker profusely and the suckers need to be cut back to allow an open crown and avoid congestion. There are cultivars that do not sucker, generally those grown on the Corylus colurna root stocks.

Allergies: The pollen of hazel species are often the cause for allergies in late winter or early spring,

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Hazel Uses

Beyond the nutritious delicious nuts hazels can be used for a variety of purposes.

Wood — Hazel is almost as well known for coppicing as it is for its nuts. The poles from coppice (known as ‘wands’) are long and flexible and have traditionally been used for wattle fencing, thatching spars, walking sticks, fishing rods, basketry, pea and bean sticks and firewood. The wood is soft and easy to split but not very durable (See Hazel Coppice below).

Oil — The nut oil is used as edible oil and contains 65% of a non-drying oil that can be used in paints, cosmetics etc.

Animal Fodder — The twigs can be used to feed rabbits and goats all year around and the leaves are very palatable to cattle.

Leaves — Leaves contain on average 2.2% N. 0.7% K and 0.12% P and when applied as mulch make a great fertilizer. The plant has potential to be grown as chop and drop component in a polyculture system.

Hedging — Hazel makes a great hedge taking well to trimming and providing a dense screen. Nut production is not as high as when grown as free standing plants but some nuts can be harvested from the hedge. The plants are also tolerant of wind and a 2 or 3 row windbreak can be set up where alternate rows are coppiced on a 7 year cycle.

Bee Fodder — Hazel is an excellent source of early forage for bees providing a source of pollen from February through to March. We include hazel in our Early Polleniser Polyculture, a polyculture dedicated to providing an early source of pollen/nectar to a wide diversity of pollinating insects.

Medicinal uses — The leaves are used in allopathy: their effect is to stimulate circulation and bile production, and they are used for liver and gall disorders. Hazelnuts are rich in protein, monounsaturated fat, vitamin E, manganese, and numerous other essential nutrients.

Other uses — The finely ground seeds are used as an ingredient of face masks in cosmetics.

Hazelnut Yields

Hazelnut trees can produce a few nuts when they are 2 or 3 years old, but they are not considered commercially productive until 4 years of age and reach peak production from years 10–15. Mature orchards can produce 1 -3 metric tons per ha. An orchard can remain productive for about 40–50 years if managed well and kept free of disease.

Hazel Coppice

Hazel coppice has been practiced extensively in the past and still provides an excellent source of valuable wood especially if you are adding value with wood crafting.

Contrary to what you may expect, coppicing the hazel can extend the life of the plant considerably with some well managed coppices being centuries old.

Hazel can be grown on various coppice cycles for a supply of poles (‘Wands’) that are used for a variety of purposes as listed above. A 7–10 year rotation is often practiced and is planted out at a rate of 1500–2000 plants per ha (spacing is 2.2–2.6 m between plants). 

In the 7th — 10th year the shoots should be 4–5m long and can be cut at any point during the year apart from August but is usually carried out in the winter. If you cut the coppice in the summer, leaves from the wood make an excellent cattle feed or mulch. Regrowth will quickly reestablish and is vulnerable to browsing from wild and domestic animals. After the first few coppice cycles, regrowth will be fast but after 15 years it will decline. If a hazel coppice is not well managed i.e cut at regular intervals for 40+ years it will die back.

How much wood can be harvested? — A site with 1500 plants per ha can yield 20 tonnes of dry wood or 40 m3 of wood per ha per cycle.

Hazel coppices are often combined with standard trees to make a two storey forest. Sweet Chestnut is a classic combination in the South of England. Oak is also very commonly grown with hazel at a rate of 30–100 standard trees per Ha. Too many standard trees will shade out the hazel.

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Hazel Polycultures

Hazels are excellent plants for use in polycultures. They are tolerant of shade so suitable in the under story, are not very nutrient demanding or competitive and are relatively compact and easy to manage. They tolerate pruning very well and can be used for chop and drop plants grown between fruit trees or in hedgerows. If nut production is sought after they should be given a prime position but can still accommodate a range of productive and useful plants around them.

We have used hazel in various polycultures including living hedges, main crop contour plantings and habitat polycultures.

Here’s an example of a design with hazel planted in a polyculture hedge designed for Permaculture Orchard - Orehite Ranch - Veslec

We’ll be planting out Hazel in our new trial garden — Ataraxia, where we’ll try growing it along with asparagus, currants, wild garlic and various bulbs in 1.5 m wide beds.

Here’s a short list of ground cover and bulbous plants that we observe growing well with hazel.

Bellis perennis — Daisy

Primula vulgaris — Primrose

Scilla bifolia — Alpine Squill

Trifolium repens — White Clover

Corydalis bulbosa — Spring Fumewort

Galanthus gracilis — Snowdrop

Agroforestry Potential Of Hazels

There is great potential for hazels in agroforestry systems. Traditionally, in Europe, hazels were grown in a silvopasture system with sheep grazing the pasture beneath the trees, this has an added benefit of controlling suckering growth. Hazel has also been grown with vines and in Kentish orchards gooseberries and currants were traditionally inter planted with young hazel.

I’ve included hazel in a few agroforestry designs the most recent being a 30 ha pastured poultry system where we’re using hazel amongst mulberry planted on contour.

Being shade tolerant the trees are good candidates for use in an under storey. In deep shade the plants will not produce a significant yield of nuts but they can be used for coppicing or mulch production. In partial shade they can still produce good yields.

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Hazelnut cultivars — Hardy and Resistant to Major Pests and Diseases

There are hundreds of hazel cultivars throughout the world, not to mention the hybrids, American and Chinese species or the Trazels, Filazels and Hazelberts (perhaps a topic for another post).

Most cultivars belong to Corylus maxima but there are many Corylus avellana and many grafted onto Corylus colurna rootstock. When selecting cultivars for your garden there a few things to consider.

• flowering times — to avoid cold damage in the winter choose a late flowering cultivar

• suckering behaviour — to avoid pruning work or perhaps if growing for mulch or biomass this could be desirable

• size and vigor — to select the right size plant for your garden

• pollinator partners — to facilitate larger and more reliable yields

Below you can find profiles of some excellent cultivars that we have on offer at our Bionursery.

We are currently offering cultivars at ​​ €7 per tree with 15% discount for orders over 100 trees.

Corylus avellana — ‘Ata Baba’

• Fruit — Round medium size fruits of 1.4 g grouped in clusters of 3 or 4 . Ripen in mid August

• Pollination — Self fertile

• Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

• Disease Resistance — Corylus colurna root stock which has a high resistance to the main European pests attacking hazelnut crop

• Form — Bush variety, very vigorous multistemmed and flowering early towards the end on December

Corylus avellana — ‘Ran Trapezundski’

• Fruit — Great tasting large oval fruits with thin shells that ripen at the end of July

• Pollination — Not Self fertile — Pollinated by Rimski, Bademoviden and Atta Baba

• Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

• Disease Resistance — Corylus colurna root stock which has a high resistance to the main European pests attacking hazelnut crop

• Form — Bush, medium vigor, multi stemmed, fruits abundantly.

Corylus avellana — ‘Rimski’

• Fruit — Large rounded nuts about 2.7g. Thin shell. 67% fat content. The fruits ripen in mid August

• Pollination — Not Self fertile — Pollinated by Bademoviden and Ran Trapezundski

• Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

• Disease Resistance — Corylus colurna root stock which has a high resistance to the main European pests attacking hazelnut crop

• Form — Bush variety. fast growing, multi stemmed with an upright crown.

Corylus avellana — ‘Tonda Gentile’

• Fruit — Excellent flavour, med — large round nuts of 2.5g with a thin shell

• Pollination — Not Self fertile — Pollinated by Rimski, Bademoviden and Ata Baba

• Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

• Disease Resistance — Corylus colurna root stock which has a high resistance to the main European pests attacking hazelnut crop

• Form — Moderate growth rates and can be grown as single stemmed trees

Corylus avellana — ‘Cosford’

• Fruit — The nuts have hard shells.100 g of fresh nuts contains 13 g protein, 61 g fat, 13,7 g carbohydrates and 3.5 g fiber. They mature in late September.

• Pollination — Self fertile, a good pollinator for many other Hazels, a good choice if you are starting your own nut orchard.

• Hardiness — Full hardy withstanding temperatures as low as -34 C

• Disease Resistance — Generally disease free

• Form — Bush variety. fast growing, multi stemmed with an upright crown.

To order some hazel cultivars for delivery this winter contact us at balkanecologyproject@gmail.com

We can provide tracked and recorded delivery to anywhere in Europe

We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

According to some accounts, Dionysus is actually attributed to creating the Grapevine. The story goes that Dionysus had fallen in love with a handsome young Satyr boy named Ampelos. Ampelos was quite a reckless character and one day when out and about on a jolly with Dionysus he attempted to ride a wild bull they happened upon. His rodeo was cut tragically short as he was tossed off the bull, repeatedly gored by the horns, and killed. Dionysus was devastated and, for reasons beyond my mortal comprehension, used his powers of deity to transform the corpse of his lover into the first grapevine. Equipped with the vine, Dionysus proceeded to travel the world with a posse of partygoers and introduced the people of foreign lands to the grapevine with instructions on how to cultivate vines and make wine. The world’s first alcohol industry lobby was born and the path was paved for a $350 billion global wine market.

There is another story about Dionysus and Ampelos where the reckless boy was killed when he slipped picking some gaudy grapes from an Elm. Dionysus, in honor of his lover, lifted the lost boy to the stars turning him into one of the stars of the constellation Vindemitor, but come on… everyone knows grapes don’t grow on Elms :)

In any case, there are now around 60 species of grapevine and 8,000+ cultivars found all over the world. Of these 60 species, there are three main species of primary interest to the fruit grower, Vitis labrusca — American Grape, Vitis rotundifolia — Muscadine Grape and Vitis vinifera — European Grape. About 90% of cultivated grapevines in the world are Vitis vinifera — European Grapevine and this is the species that I have most experience growing so will be the focus of this post.

So, during this post we’ll take a close look at these incredible plants including how to grow them, the uses of Grapes, growing Grapes in polycultures, permaculture and agroforestry and I’ll introduce some pest and disease resistant cultivars that we are offering from the bionursery this season.

Overview

Latin name — Vitis vinifera
Common name — European Grapevine
Family — Vitaceae

History — The grapevine family, Vitaceae, is believed to be over 65 million years old and would have initially spread around the globe by continental drift long before us humans arrived on the scene. It’s unclear where Vitis vinifera originated but there is evidence that we have been growing grapes since the earliest days of civilisation from as far back as 6500 B.C. By 4000 B.C. grape growing extended from Transcaucasia to Asia Minor and through the Nile Delta of Egypt. The Hittites are credited with spreading grape culture westward as they migrated to Crete, Bosporus and Thrace, as early as 3000 B.C. Later, the Greeks and Phoenicians extended grape growing to China, Carthage, Sicily, southern Italy, Spain and France. Under the influence of the Romans, grape production spread throughout Europe. Much later, the Western Europeans planted the grapevine wherever cultivation was possible, i.e. throughout the temperate and warm temperate regions of the world: North America, particularly California; South America, North Africa, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, etc. and hence this humble plant has gone global.

Description — V. vinifera is a woody deciduous vine known as a Liana that climbs by branched tendrils to 12 -18 m in height . The plant bears a fruit, botanically referred to as a berry that we know as the grape. Depending on the cultivar, the grapes can be green, pink, red or purple-skinned and the pulp is usually a light green or yellow colour and encapsulates small seeds.

Sexual Reproduction — The plants are hermaphrodites with each tiny flower containing both male and female reproductive structures. The flowers are borne in clusters (inflorescence) with each cluster containing hundreds of flowers. At the beginning of the flowering process, in the spring, the petals are fused together in what is known as a calyptra. The calyptra serves as a cap containing the male and female flower parts and eventually slips off liberating the pollen from the anthers of the stamen (male part). If the pollen from the anthers make contact with the stigma (female part) the pollen grains (plant sperm) will proceed towards the ovary down the stigma and if they reach the egg at the bottom fertilisation occurs and a grape will start to develop. V.vinifera is self fertile and it is thought that the transfer of pollen from stamen to stigma is largely achieved while the stamens and stigma are in contact with each other as the calyptra slips off but wind also plays a part with pollen from different flowers distributed to different stimga.

Growing Range — Vitis vinifera is found throughout Asia, North America and Europe and has a preference for subtropical, Mediterranean Climate and temperate climatic conditions. When you think of grape growing countries, Italy and France spring to mind but China is actually the world’s leading producer of grapes, with the USA following.

Hardiness USDA — Vitis vinifera are hardy to USDA zones 6–10. Plant damage can occur at -18°C and late frosts will kill young shoots. We have not had any problems with the grapes we are growing in our gardens that are borderline USDA 5b. For grapes that will tolerate colder climates look to cultivars of Vitis lambrusca — American Grapes, or hybrids of, that are cold hardy to USDA zone 4.

Ecology — Although Vitis vinifera does not need insects to set fruit, a range of pollinators will still visit grape flowers that are rich in pollen and nectar. Many other insects (including some serious pests) will feed on the roots and leaves of the plant. (see pests below).

Bees and wasps are also very fond of the ripe fruit and we always leave some bunches on the vine to provision for them . As well as flying insects, we commonly observe a variety of birds eating the grapes including Blackbird, Great Tit, Coal Tit, Blue Tit, Mistle Thrush and Starlings. On a few occasions a flock of 100 + starling have descended upon the vines in late October and cleaned off all of the fruits we left after harvest in a matter of minutes. The Great Tit, Coal Tit, Blue Tit also seem to enjoy picking through the flaky bark for grubs that may be sheltering there for the winter.

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Where to Plant

Climatic limitations — Grapevines are grown in regions across the globe where temperatures during the growing season average 13–21°C. These temperature limits are found mostly in the mid-latitude regions of the continents, With careful cultivar selection and use of micro climate it is possible to grow outside of mid latitude regions with good success but most commercial production of grapes is grown within the preferred climates as mentioned above.

Soil — Grapevine prefers a deep rich moist well-drained moderately fertile loam and prefers a pH in the range 6.5 to 7 but will tolerate a range from 4.3 to 8.6. There are a wide range of cultivars available that are suited to a variety of soils (see table below) making it possible to find a cultivar for pretty much all soil conditions.

Location — Grapevines require full sun for healthy growth and good production. Some shade for a few hours a day is fine but in areas with cooler summers than a typical Mediterranean summer, plant in full sun and utilise a favourable micro climate, such as sun facing wall, to help provide the heat required to ripen the fruit. Like many fruits Grapevine are susceptible to replant disorder, a problem of re-establishing plants in soil where the same species was grown previously. This should not be a problem is five years have passed since the removal of the previous plant.

Spacing — Vine spacing, when trained on wires along a row, can be 1.5–3 m apart , 2 m being a typical spacing. The distance between the rows should be at least as high as the vines (to avoid shading). For grapes grown on arbors one vine per 15–30 m2 of arbor space is good. If growing your vines from cuttings you can double or triple the planting density to account for the cuttings that don’t make it or do not grow as strong as others and thin later.

Pollination — V.vinifera can be grown alone and will produce fruit. The flowers are self fertile hermaphrodites and the pollen is transferred from the male flowers to the female flowers when the calyptra (cap that fuses the petals together) is shed. This process is very noticeable on the vines of our arbour as the floor is littered with the tiny flower caps. Wind is also thought to assist in pollination and insects may also play a small role. Development of flower parts begins shortly after bud break and takes approximately six to eight weeks. It’s normal for nearly 50 percent of the flowers not set fruit in a cluster.

Picking the right cultivar — There are thousands upon thousands of cultivars to choose from. More often than not the best cultivars to grow are ones that are already growing well locally to you. There are a range of options from late summer fruiting dessert grapes to late autumn wine grapes.

Grapevine Root stocks — It’s important to consider the root stock of a grapevine when selecting plants as the choice of root stock often determines pest and disease resistance, drought tolerance, soil salinity and alkaline tolerance. I found this root stock selector tool for Australian growers and the below table from the excellent Agroforestry News Vol 8 №3 pages 23 -35 lists the properties of various root stocks for European growers.

Characteristics of Grapevine Root stocks 

Fertility, Irrigation and Care

Fertility — Grapes are deep rooted and once established will require little compost unless your soil is extremely poor. When planting out I often use 15 L compost applied the surface topped with 20 cm deep straw mulch and will repeat this in the 2nd year of planting only.

Irrigation — Outdoor-grown grapes will only need watering in severe and prolonged dry spells. The most important time to irrigate is when the plants are in flower and when the fruits are starting to enlarge. Applying irrigation when the fruits are ripening is not at all necessary and can lead to a dilution of the sugar content, reducing sweetness.

Weeding — Young vines should be kept clear of weeds while they establish. Our older vines (50+ years old) with well developed root systems are under planted with a full ground cover of herbaceous plants and they do not seem to be hindered by the under-story vegetation. Our newer vines are weeded each year with the weeds chopped and dropped to the surface following with half a bale of straw mulch to prevent new weeds emerging and preserve soil moisture.

Pruning — When pruning the most important thing to know is the fundamental growth pattern of Grapevines. The buds, that will emerge as flowers and ripen to fruit (if pollinated and fertilised) are borne on the new growth and are fully developed by the end of autumn ready to emerge again in the following spring. These stems are easy to identify as they are the only stems that have buds are lighter in colour and smoother than the previous years and older wood that will never produce buds. In the below photo taken in autumn you can see the previous year’s growth at the top center of the image and the three shoots that emerged in the spring of that year with fully developed buds ready for spring of next year.

Whether you are growing Grapes on an arbor or training them on wires they will benefit from pruning. There are many pruning methods for trained grapes but all have the same purpose — to produce uncrowded growing spaces for the fruits to develop, to allow plenty of light to reach the new growth and ripening fruits, and to promote growth of fewer but better developed fruits.

The time to prune grapes is when they are dormant from December — February, depending on your location. I prefer to prune in Jan or Early Feb as I have noticed the vines can weep (water droplets fall from the cuts) when pruned too late in the year. For our vines, grown on an arbor, Using a sharp pair of secateurs (preferably Felco) I’ll cut back last year’s growth to two or three buds, making a cut just above the bud. The white spots in the below image indicates where the cuts would be made when pruning.

I’ll also remove all of the dead vine and older branches that are rubbing against each other. If you do not prune the vines they will produce more fruit however after a few years without pruning the vine will be crowded, the fruits will be small, low quality and the plant will be more susceptible to disease. Shoots can be very long, ranging from 20 cm to 3 m in length and when establishing your vine on an arbor you can leave a few of the longest shoots to promote faster cover.

Harvesting — The fruit takes from 3–4 months to ripen depending on the weather. Grapes don’t ripen once picked and should be allowed to ripen on the vines to get as sweet as possible. Providing there is not a lot of rainfall, and day time temperature remains above 20 C, the grapes will continue to sweeten. Personally I prefer a slight sourness to the juice but if you are making wine it’s best to leave them on the vines until the last possible moment to increase the sugar content. We generally harvest our grapes in stages to take advantage of the different flavoured juice. The early harvest has more of a sour tang with the last harvest sometimes being so sweet it aches. With good cultivar selection you can pick grapes for eating fresh from as early as late August right through to late October.

Propagation — Grapevines are super easy to propagate via hardwood cuttings and I usually combine propagating with pruning, selecting the best stems and popping them straight into deep pots. The short video below show us pruning and planting the cuttings. We use a 50% river 50% sieved compost as a potting mix which works really well and if kept moist during the growing season the cuttings are ready for planting out into beds or their permanent positions by the autumn. Keep the rooted cuttings weed free and well watered during the next few years and they will grow on to be strong vines and should start producing fruit a few years after planting.

Buying Grapes — Vigorous, 1-year-old plants are best. Smaller, sometimes weaker, 1-year-old plants are often held over by the nursery to grow another year and are then sold as 2-year-old stock. It’s best to ask for strong 1 year old plants.

We have a range of excellent pest and disease resistant Grape cultivars available from our nursery and are currently offering these cultivars at ​​ €6 per vine with 10% discount for orders over 20 vines — email balkanecologyproject@gmail with your order

Potential Problems

Insect/Pest: The most damaging pest of the vine was Grape Phylloxera — Daktulosphaira vitifoliae which during the mid 1850’s completely destroyed 2,500,000 ha of vine in western Europe. These almost microscopic, pale yellow sap-sucking insects, related to aphids, feed on the roots and leaves of grapevines and are easily recognisable by the galls they create on the leaves of the vine.

The insects were imported to Europe with the American vine species (Vitis labrusca) and although causing little significant damage to the American vines that had evolved several natural defences against phylloxera, they ravaged through the defenceless European Grapevine. The best way to defend against this pest is to use grafted cuttings on resistant V. labrusca (and hybrids) root stock. Flooding the vines for 50 days in winter has also been used and will kill all the nymphs that overwinter in the roots or the bark at the bottom of the plant.

Another insect, the Vine Erinose Mite — Colomerus vitis causes parts of the leaf to bulge upwards, appearing blistered and can superficially look similar to D. vitifoliae galls, however these mites are relatively harmless and should be of no concern.

Disease: Fungal — The most common diseases of grapes are fungal. Black spot, powdery mildew and anthracnose are some of the common fungal diseases that affect the plant by reducing its capacity to harvest light via leaf loss and leaf deterioration. Choosing resistant cultivars and keeping the plants well cared for i.e planted in a proper location with plenty of light and good air circulation, will significantly reduce the risk of disease.

Disease: Bacterial — Bacterial grapevine diseases are more common for broad scale monoculture grape cultivation and should not be of concern to the home grower given proper cultivar selection and care for the plants

Early Autumn Frosts: During autumn the vine is redirecting nutrients from its leaves to store as reserves in the trunk and roots. An early frost can disrupt this process with the leaves falling to the ground early resulting in less nutrition for the plant and possibly leading to weaker growth the following season.

Extreme Weather Events: Hail and strong winds can defoliate a vine in early spring and lead to poor flower development and reduced fruit set by way of reduced carbon assimilation and storage. Our vines are subject to spring hail and some pretty strong storms with obvious damage caused, but we always receive a good crop

Allergies: Although allergies to grapes and grape pollen are uncommon, allergic reactions have been described in the last two decades in areas with high planting density of vines.

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You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.  

Grape Uses

Beyond the nutritious delicious fruits, the grapevine plant can be used for a variety of purposes.

Wine — Perhaps the go-to beverage of leisure for Homo sapiens, there is an argument to make that this humble plant is part responsible for Homo sapiens spectacular population growth both in terms of reducing the suicide rate and increasing the rate of reproduction :)

Kindling — When we prune our grapes in early winter, aside from the cuttings used for propagation, we pack the rest of the stems into sacks and leave them in a dry place. By the time winter comes around again the stems are dry and make perfect kindling for starting fires.

Stems — The annual growth of a stem can be meters long and there is tradition to use the long stems of the vine for basket making. Certain cultivars make better basketry material than others.

Oil — An oil can be extracted from the seed and is and vital ingredients for skin care cosmetic products. Grapeseed oil is also used in salad dressings but is not suitable for hot cooking.

Animal Fodder — The twigs and leaves make excellent fodder to a range of animals including rabbits, goats and cattle. The fast growing nature of the plant and the abundant stems and leaves produced during the growing season make this a plant well worth planting around animal housing specifically for fodder.

Leaves — Vine leaves are very edible and often used in Mediterranean, Balkan and Middle Eastern cuisine. Grape leaves should be picked fresh off the vine in late spring or early summer when the leaves are tender and can be used fresh or preserved in brine, frozen for use all year around. ​

Dye — I heard it through the grapevine that a yellow dye can be extracted from the fresh or dried leaves. (click here….you know you want to listen to it!)

Shade Structure — A mature arbor can create the perfect shade for those hot summer days. In our town nearly every south facing house has an arbor full of vines to protect the house from the intense summer heat and provide a source of fruit for wine making that is commonly practised here. When the leaves fall in the winter the lower sunlight can pour into the house and warm the place up a little. Passive solar design at it’s best. I keep many of our potted nursery plants under the vines so to escape the intense summer heat.

Biomass Plants for Mulch — The plants grow very fast at the beginning of the season and produce plenty of biomass. As easy as they are to propagate and given that the deep rooted plants are drought tolerant there may be a case for growing them for biomass. I’ve been growing Vitis coignetiae — Crimson Glory Vine in our hedgerows in the market garden for about 6 years and the plants are really starting to take off now. The plants have not borne fruits but we do receive a decent yield of biomass that I use to mulch the surrounding productive shrubs and being a climbing plant they take up no extra space.

Medicinal uses — There are many medicinal uses recorded for grapes;

• Grapes are a natural laxative, diuretic, and enjoy high levels of Vitamin C and B6

• Grapes have a low glycemic index, making them a great source of natural energy for diabetics and dieters alike

• It is excellent in treatment of liver problems, helping to lower blood pressure and ease the problems caused with poor circulation

• The leaves are an astringent, so they have been used to treat diarrhea

• Grape juice (not to be confused with fermented grape juice or wine) helps to detoxify the body.

• Resveratrol is still being discussed as increasing the longevity of a healthy life. Specifically, reseveratrol, which is extracted from grape skin and flesh, is being studied and touted as increasing the longevity of three of our genes.

• Grape seed oil is a popularly used natural oil that is hypo-allergenic

• Grape seed extract is a known antioxidant

Grapevine Yields

The second year after planting they should start producing fruit and after three years you can expect up to 7 kg (15 lbs) of fruit per vine. Two vines are probably enough to support a household of grape lovers and as the vines mature will produce enough fruit for juicing as well as eating fresh. For juicing and wine making you can expect approx. 1 litre of juice from 1.5 kg of grapes.

The oldest known vine grows in Slovenia and is over 400 years old and still producing 35 to 55 kg of grapes a year.

Grapevine Polycultures

Grapes are good candidates for use in polycultures, the vertical climbing nature of the plant and its adaptable form when pruned provides many opportunities to combine the grapevine with other plants. Growing grapes in multi plant polycultures is probably only worth considering for small scale garden polycultures and for people wanting to get creative in the edible garden.

We’ve been growing various grape polycultures for almost 10 years now. For one polyculture the grapes are grown 2 -3 m high with a variety of herbs, shrubs and trees grown around. We’ve also planted a new polyculture this year featuring grapes trained on wires and we’ll see how it gets on.

Below you will find a brief description of our grape polycultures. I’ll be writing full profiles of these polycultures for a book I’m working on that should be ready in a few winters time.

Grapes trained on wires Polyculture

We have been training grapes in polycultures around the gardens this year but as they have not matured yet, I’m not sure how effective they are.

The below design is planted on the berm of an overflow swale that catches overflow from our reservoir. The vines are planted in the middle of the swale and trained onto two wires (Kniffin system). In front of the vines are Vaccinium corymbosum cv. — Blueberry ‘Sunshine Blue’ (a Dwarf Blueberry and tolerant of a higher pH than most blueberry cultivars) with Rubus × loganobaccus — Loganberry, a border of Hemerocallis fulva — Orange Daylily (that I have observed growing extremely well under some mature vines in another garden) and flanked by two Iris germanica — Bearded Iris.

Grape Polyculture — Small Arbor

I have some delicious dessert grapes that ripen in late summer that we are growing up a simple three pole arbor with a number of herbs planted around the edges and a Spartium junceaum planted underneath. I was worried that the Spartium junceum — Broom would be shaded out by the vines as they matured, but eight years on it is still growing well under the vine, trimmed back hard every year with the coarse pruning’s used to mulch under the vines. The arbor you can see in the below photo (on the right) was not at all strong enough to support the vine as it matured and it collapsed this year however the vines were supported by the Broom and a Zanthoxylum piperitum — Japanese Pepper Tree planted around the same time that is over 3 m tall now.

Grape Polyculture — Large Arbor

We inherited some wonderful old vines when we bought our house, they must be at least over 50 years old now and produce a great quantity of grapes each year. The vines are grown up a large arbor that is approx 3 m high and there is around 30 m2 of arbor. The vines also grow up the face of the house and onto a balcony on the top floor. Underneath the vines we have variety of plants growing including the plants listed below.

Here’s a short list of shrubs, herbs and bulbous plants that I have observed growing well under and alongside our grape vines.

Shrubs

Rosa canina — Dog Rose

Mahonia aquifolium — Oregon Grape

Elaeagnus umbellata — Autumn Olive

Prunus cerasifera — Cherry Plum

Herbs

Phlomis russeliana — Turkish Sage

Rudbeckia laciniata — Goldenglow

Sedem telephium — Orpine

Symphytum x uplandicum — Comfrey

Mentha × piperita — Peppermint

Melissa officinalis — Lemon balm

Ground Cover
Iris germanica — Bearded Iris
Hemerocallis fulva — Orange Daylily
Physalis alkekengi — Chinese Lantern
Trifolium repens — White Clover

Bulbs

Narcissus poeticus — Poet’s Narcissus

Galanthus gracilis — Snowdrop

Tulipa sp. — Tulip

Nectaroscordum siculum — Bulgarian Honey Garlic

I planted a climbing Akebia quinata — Chocolate Vine beside one of the vines in our yard. I can’t recommend this combination as the Akebia growth will eventually strangle the Grapevine as it matures and the Akebia, while not being pruned every year, is starting to dominate the arbor and reducing the light the vine receives and very few grapes grow in this area now.

Agroforestry Potential Of Grapevine

I believe there is good potential for grapes in agroforestry systems. Being suitable for growing vertically and trained to wires they require little space and can easily fit between rows of timber or coppice trees taking full advantage of light while the trees are growing. Spacing should be considered so that when the tree rows are mature and ready for cutting they will not shade the light demanding grapes.

It is also possible to grow grapes within tree canopies but harvest will be difficult, pruning will be near impossible and the shading provided by the vine on the tree and vice versa may reduce the productivity of both species. It would certainly be more of an attractive option on a very small scale at lines of latitude north or south below 40 where light is more abundant.

Grape Cultivars — Hardy and Resistant to Major Pests and Diseases

Vitis vinifera — ‘Moldova’

This cultivars was created in Kishinev Institute of Vine and Wine in Moldova and is a delicious dessert grape that ripens during the last half of September (depending on the conditions under which it is grown)

Fruit — The grape shape is conical and midsize with the average weight of each cluster being 385 g. The skin is usually thick and the flesh is firm. The fruits can be eaten fresh and can be stored for 5–6 months under refrigeration. The grapes also keep well on the vine, providing birds do not get them.

Growth Rate — The vines are vigorous and are very suitable for growing up a tall trellis with plenty of room for the shoots to grow horizontally. Plants that are 8–10 years old, when properly cared for, can be expected to yield 150–170 kg of grapes.

Soils — The variety does not appreciate calcareous/lime soil and is best grown in soils with pH 5.5 -7.5

Pest and Disease Resistance — Moldova is resistant to all common grapevine pest and diseases making this cultivar an excellent choice for the polyculture/permaculture/organic garden.

Vitis vinifera — ‘Naslada’

Naslada is an Italian dessert grape, selected in Italy in 1911 by Luigi Alberto and Pirot

Fruit — Naslada ripens in the second half of September. The fruits are large, oblong shaped with thin skins and very juicy with 16–18% sugar content. The weight of a bunch range from 210–420 g. The fruits can store for long periods of time when refrigerated.

Growth Rate — The vines are vigorous and require little fertility

Soils — Best grown in soils with pH 5.5 -7.5

Pest and Disease Resistance — Naslada is resistant to most common grapevine pest and diseases making this cultivar an excellent choice for the polyculture/permaculture/organic garden.

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Let’s dive into the world of jujubes and discover why they deserve a spot in your garden!

We’ll start by taking a broad look at the Ziziphus genus and then narrow down to the most versatile species, Ziziphus jujuba where we look at the history of the plant, how to grow and take care of it, the uses of Jujube, growing Jujube in polycultures, permaculture, and agroforestry, and we'll introduce some hardy cultivars that we're offering from the nursery this season, perfect for growing in temperate climates including all over Europe.

Lets get started!

The Ziziphus Genus

The Ziziphus genus belongs to the family Rhamnaceae and comprises around 40 species of spiny shrubs and small trees. These plants are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Americas. Ziziphus species are drought-tolerant and thrive in arid and semi-arid environments, making them important for soil conservation and reforestation where they also provide habitat and food for various wildlife, including birds and insects.

Although they are primarily found in tropical and subtropical parts of the world that are subject to drought and hot weather, the most widely cultivated species are able to withstand temperatures below -15C and are very suitable for growing in Temperate and Mediterranean climate .

Plant Form

The genus includes a variety of growth forms, primarily spiny shrubs and small trees, adapted to diverse environments. Most species are dense, thorny shrubs (1–3 m tall), forming thickets in arid regions. Others, such as Ziziphus jujuba and Ziziphus spina-christi, grow into small to medium-sized trees (5–12 m), with cultivated varieties often pruned for fruit production. Some species exhibit a scrambling or semi-climbing habit, using hooked thorns to support themselves on nearby vegetation and can make great ground covers for dry and stony soils. In harsher conditions, Ziziphus species may become dwarfed (<1 m) or stunted. Wild varieties typically have pronounced thorns, while cultivated types may be thornless.

Ziziphus species offer diverse benefits: their fruits, rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, are consumed fresh, dried, or processed into jams and juices, while various plant parts (leaves, bark, roots, and fruits) are utilized in traditional medicine systems like Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine that we’ll look at closer later in the post.

Additionally, some species provide timber and fodder for livestock. Many species in the genus hold cultural and religious importance in many regions with the jujube tree’s fruit thought to grant eternal life, tying it to themes of longevity and transcendence.

Notable Species

From the 40 species distributed across the world, probably the most prominent species are as follows :-

Ziziphus mauritiana - Indian jujube: Commonly grown in South Asia for its fruit, which is consumed fresh or dried. The specific name ‘mauritiana’ derives from the island of Mauritius where the species was perhaps first formally collected.

Ziziphus spina-christi - Christ's thorn jujube: A species with religious significance, often associated with the crown of thorns in Christian tradition. Very popular all over west Asia and in BWh climate (KCC)

Ziziphus lotus: A species native to the Mediterranean region, historically significant in ancient cultures.

Ziziphus jujuba - Chinese date: One of the most well-known species, cultivated for its sweet, edible fruit. It is widely used in traditional medicine and cuisine.

The two major domesticated jujubes of commercial significance are Z. mauritiana and Z. jujuba.

Ziziphus jujuba - Chinese date will be the focus for the rest of this post.

Overview of Ziziphus jujuba - Chinese date

Scientific Name: Ziziphus jujuba

Family: Rhamnaceae (Buckthorn family)

Common Names: Chinese date, jujube, red date, Korean date

Growth Habit: Small to medium-sized tree (5–12 m tall) with thorny branches

Leaves: Shiny green, oval with three prominent veins

Flowers: Small, yellow-green, fragrant

Fruit: Drupe (stone fruit), starts green and turns red or dark brown when ripe; sweet and chewy when dried

USDA Hardiness Zones: Optimal Range: Zones 5–10 (some varieties tolerate Zone 4 with protection). Zone 5–9: Most commercial varieties thrive (e.g., ‘Li’, ‘Lang’). Zone 10+: Possible but may lack winter chill for fruiting in tropical climates.

Cold Tolerance: Mature trees survive -20°C . Young trees need winter protection (mulch/row covers) in Zone 5–6.

Extreme Heat: Handles over 43°C (110°F) if watered occasionally.

Drought Resistance: Deep roots access groundwater; survives long dry spells once established (ideal for xeriscaping).

Soil Adaptability : pH Range: 6.0–8.5 (tolerates alkaline soils better than most fruit trees).

Soil Types: Grows in poor, sandy, rocky, or saline soils but prefers well-drained loam.

Waterlogging: Susceptible to root rot in clay/heavy wet soils.

Wind: Tolerates strong winds (used as windbreaks in arid regions).

Pollution: Handles urban air pollution well.

Pests/Diseases: Few major issues (organic-friendly due to natural pest resistance).

A Brief History of Ziziphus jujube

The plant has a rich history that dates back over 4,000 years. Native to China, where it has been cultivated for its fruit, medicinal properties, and its wood, the tree spread along the Silk Road across Central Asia, reaching the Middle East, North Africa, and eventually Europe and the Americas.

The name "jujube" comes from the Greek word for the plant ziziphon, which was later adapted into Latin as ziziphus. Today, jujubes are grown worldwide, from arid regions to temperate climates, thanks to their adaptability and resilience.

The Legend of the Jujube Tree in the Moon

While researching for this post I came across the The Legend of the Jujube Tree in the Moon, a captivating tale deeply rooted in Chinese folklore.

The tale begins with Houyi, a legendary archer, and his wife, Chang'e. Back in their day there were ten suns in the sky, causing the earth to scorch and suffer. Houyi, with his incredible archery skills, shot down nine of the suns, saving the earth and its people.

As a reward for his heroism, the Queen Mother of the West (Xi Wangmu) gave Houyi an elixir of immortality. Houyi did not want to become immortal without his beloved wife, Chang'e and decided to keep the elixir at home, planning to share it with her.

One day, while Houyi was away, Chang'e discovered the elixir and drank it out of curiosity, after consuming the elixir she began to float upward, ascending to a cold and desolate moon. The Gods noticed her tragic accent to the moon and to ease her loneliness gifted her a jujube tree that was magical and immortal, bearing fruit that could grant eternal life.

During the Mid-Autumn Festival to this day people honor Chang'e and the moon by eating mooncakes, a traditional pastry, and sharing stories about the moon. Families gather to admire the full moon, believing that they can see the outline of the jujube tree on its surface.

I also found references to Jujube in the folklore and religion of Indian, Korean, Persian, African, Roman, Greek, Islamic and Buddhist traditions.

Sexual Reproduction in Ziziphus jujuba - Chinese Date

The plant reproduces through a fascinating sexual reproduction process that relies on cross-pollination. Some jujube trees are dioecious (with separate male and female plants), but most varieties produce hermaphroditic flowers containing both male and female parts.

Flower Structure & Pollination

Jujube trees produce clusters of small, fragrant, yellowish-green flowers that grow along the stems. The male flowers produce abundant pollen but cannot develop fruit, while female flowers contain ovaries that will only swell into fruit after successful pollination. On rare occasions, you may find perfect flowers containing both male and female reproductive structures in the same flower.

Nature has designed an efficient pollination system where bees and other insects serve as the primary pollen carriers, attracted by the flowers' sweet fragrance. While wind may occasionally assist in pollen transfer, insects remain the most effective pollinators. Cross-pollination between plants results in better fruit production so it is best to grow multiple cultivars.

Fertilization & Fruit Development

The magic begins when a pollen grain reaches a receptive female flower. The pollen tube grows down into the ovary to complete fertilization, initiating the development of the characteristic drupe fruit. These stone fruits undergo a remarkable transformation, starting as small green spheres that gradually mature through yellow and red stages before reaching their final brown hue at full ripeness. Inside the sweet flesh of the fruit, the hard-shelled seed protects the plant embryo (seed), carrying the genetic blueprint for future generations.

Seed Dispersal & Germination

Mature jujube fruits have evolved an effective seed dispersal mechanism through animal participation. Creatures that consume the tasty fruits later deposit the undigested seeds in new locations with their droppings, a process known as zoochory. The seeds exhibit an interesting survival strategy through dormancy, often requiring exposure to cold temperatures (about 2-3 months at 4°C) to break this dormant state. This cold stratification requirement prevents premature germination and ensures seedlings emerge when conditions are favorable for growth.

Global Fruit Production

China accounts for roughly 90% of the world's supply of Jujube fruits, with an estimated 8–10 million metric tons annually. Other significant producers include India (200,000–500,000 tons, mostly from wild and semi-cultivated trees), Iran (50,000–100,000 tons), and smaller-scale cultivation in Pakistan, Afghanistan, the Middle East, and North Africa. In recent years, the U.S., Australia, Southern Europe (Italy, Spain), and South America have also begun expanding commercial jujube production, though output remains limited.

Ideal Growing Regions

Ziziphus jujuba thrives in a variety of climates but grows best in Mediterranean regions like California, Spain, and Italy, where warm, dry summers and mild winters promote optimal fruiting. It is also exceptionally well-suited to arid and semi-arid zones, including the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Australia, thanks to its deep-rooted drought resistance. Additionally, jujube trees adapt well to cold-winter regions such as China’s Yellow River Valley and the U.S. Midwest (with some winter protection in extreme cold), where they can endure freezing temperatures while still producing reliable harvests. This versatility makes the jujube a resilient choice for both commercial orchards and home gardens in diverse environments.

Challenging Areas

Ziziphus jujuba struggles in tropical lowland climates where the lack of winter chill hours disrupts its fruiting cycle, leading to poor yields. Additionally, it performs poorly in waterlogged or poorly drained soils, as standing water promotes root rot—planting in raised beds or improving drainage is essential in these conditions. While jujube is highly adaptable, these environments require special modifications for successful cultivation.

Why Grow Jujube?

Jujube trees are a dream for growers. Here’s why:

1. Drought-Tolerant: Jujubes thrive in hot, dry climates and require minimal water once established.

2. Low Maintenance: They are resistant to pests and diseases, making them easy to grow organically.

3. Versatile Fruit: The fruit can be eaten fresh, dried, or cooked, offering a range of culinary possibilities.

4. Nutritional Powerhouse: Jujubes are packed with vitamin C, antioxidants, and fiber, making them a healthy addition to your diet.

5. Beautiful Trees: With their glossy green leaves and delicate yellow flowers, jujube trees are also ornamental.

6. Ecology: The plants provide a source of food for bees and other invertebrates and, when grown in thickets or as hedging the thorny branches provide a perfect loafing and nesting habitat for wildlife.

   

How to Grow Jujube

Climate and Soil

Jujubes prefer warm, sunny climates and can tolerate temperatures as low as -20°C once mature. They grow best in well-drained soil but can adapt to poor, sandy, or alkaline soils.

Planting

• Location: Choose a sunny spot with plenty of space (jujube trees can grow up to 10 meters tall, though dwarf varieties are available).

• Timing: Plant in spring to allow the tree to establish before winter. If planting in Autumn mulch young trees for their first winter.

• Spacing: Space trees 4-6 meters apart to ensure good air circulation and sunlight.

Key Considerations for Planting

• Winter Chill Requirement: 100–500 hours (varies by cultivar; low-chill types exist).

• Frost Risk: Blooms late (spring), avoiding frost damage in most climates.

• Humidity: Prefers dry climates; fungal risks increase in high humidity.

• Plant with at least one other cultivar for the benefits of cross pollination that will result in higher and more reliable fruit yields

Care

• Watering: Water regularly during the first year, then reduce frequency. Mature trees are highly drought-tolerant. 20 L per tree per week without rain during the hot season should be adequate.

• Pruning: Prune in late winter to shape the tree and remove dead or crossing branches. Prune excessive growth in the summer once the fruit is set to redirect growth to the fruits.

• Fertilizing: for the first 3 - 5 years after planting, 10 -15L of good compost applied around tree in early spring will encourage growth and fruiting. If growing these trees in a forest garden there should be no need to apply more compost after the 5th year.

Propagation

Propagation of Ziziphus jujuba can be done through seeds, cuttings, or grafting, with each method having its advantages.

• Seed - Seed propagation is simple but results in variable fruit quality, as jujube seeds exhibit cross-pollination variability; stratification (cold treatment) for 2–3 months improves germination.

  

• Vegetative - hardwood ensure genetic consistency but may have lower success rates especially without rooting hormones.

• Grafting - The most reliable method is grafting (e.g., cleft or whip grafting), which preserves desirable traits from superior cultivars and accelerates fruiting (within 2–3 years)

  

• Air layering is also effective but less common.

For best results, propagation should be done in spring or early summer, using well-drained soil and consistent moisture until establishment. Grafted plants are preferred for commercial orchards to maintain fruit quality and yield. Seedlings take 4–5 years to bear fruit however grafted plants will produce fruiting 2–3 years.

Harvesting

Jujubes ripen in late summer to early fall. The fruit turns from green to reddish-brown when ripe and develops a sweet, crisp texture. For drying, harvest when the fruit is fully ripe and slightly wrinkled.

Welcome to our Online Store where you can find Forest Garden/ Permaculture plants, seeds, bulbs, and Polyculture multi-packs along with digital goods and services such as Online Courses, Webinars and eBooks. We hope you enjoy the store and find something you like. It's your purchases that keep our Project going.

You can also find our full list of trees. shrubs and herbs for forest gardens on our nursery website.

Culinary Uses of Jujube

Jujubes are incredibly versatile in the kitchen. Here are some ideas:

• Fresh: Enjoy them straight from the tree for a sweet, apple-like snack.

• Dried: Dried jujubes are chewy and sweet, similar to dates. They make a great addition to trail mixes or baked goods.

• Tea: Simmer dried jujubes with ginger and honey for a soothing herbal tea.

• Jams and Preserves: Cook jujubes with sugar and lemon juice to make a delicious spread.

• Savory Dishes: Add dried jujubes to stews, tagines, or rice dishes for a touch of sweetness.

Medicinal Benefits of Jujube

Jujubes have been used in traditional medicine for centuries with modern research supporting many of these benefits:

• Sleep Aid: Jujube is known to promote relaxation and improve sleep quality.

• Digestive Health: The fiber content helps regulate digestion and prevent constipation.

• Immune Support: High in vitamin C and antioxidants, jujubes can boost your immune system.

• Stress Relief: Jujube is believed to have calming properties, reducing anxiety and stress.

Jujube’s use in TCM - Traditional Chinese Medicine

Ziziphus jujuba is a key herb in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) with a long history of use. Its dried fruits, seeds, and sometimes bark are incorporated into remedies for their nourishing, calming, and restorative properties.

The Key Uses in TCM include

• Nourishes Blood & Qi – Used to tonify the spleen and stomach, improving digestion, fatigue, and anemia.

• Calms the Mind – Prescribed for insomnia, anxiety, and irritability, often combined with herbs like suanzaoren (Ziziphus spinosa seeds).

• Moistens Dryness – Alleviates dry cough, sore throat, and constipation by promoting fluid production.

• Supports Heart Health – Believed to strengthen the heart and stabilize blood pressure.

• Detoxifies & Reduces Inflammation – Used in formulas for skin conditions and mild infections.

Common Forms:

• Dried jujube fruits (Da Zao) – Eaten directly, boiled in soups, or decocted in herbal teas.

• Jujube seeds (Suan Zao Ren) – Processed (often roasted) to enhance sedative effects.

• Herbal combinations – Found in formulas like Guì Pí Tāng (for spleen Qi deficiency) and Gān Mài Dà Zǎo Tāng (for emotional distress).

Other Uses of Ziziphus jujuba

• Shade Trees - In agroforestry the tree is often used as a shade tree providing dappled sunlight. In Turkey and Lebanon you will often find Jujube planted around the edges of olive, pomegranate, vineyards and fig orchards.

• Hedging/Windbreak – Dense growth and thorns make it effective for barriers and branches are used as natural barbed wire in rural areas.

• Livestock fodder – Leaves are fed to silkworms and goats in some regions.

• Hardwood carpentry – Reddish-brown wood used for furniture (especially in rural China) as well as durable and shock-resistant tool handles and musical instruments (e.g., dizi flute mouthpieces)

• Charcoal production – High-quality fuel source.

• Ecology - The plant is a great provider for Bees with flowers producing nectar and pollen source for honeybees. Birds and small mammals nest in its branches.

• Erosion control – Deep roots stabilize soil on slopes.

• Dye production – Bark and leaves yield tan/yellow pigments for textiles.

• Biomass fuel – Pruned branches as firewood and logs.

• Papermaking – Fiber from bark and wood pulp.

• Perfumery – Flower fragrance extracted for aromatherapy.

• Bonsai cultivation – Popular in Asian bonsai traditions due to gnarled trunk aesthetics.

• Coral reef restoration – The most unusual use I came across. In Vietnam, jujube wood structures help rebuild marine ecosystems.

Growing Jujube In Polycultures

The plants are well suited to polyculture and Forest Gardens and can be used for a variety of different purposes within regenerative landscapes. Being sun loving they are best placed as an upper canopy tree if grown for fruit but can also be used in the lower canopy and shrub layers if the intention is to grow for biomass, wood or to serve as hedging or habitat

Jujube Mandala Polyculture

Here is an example of a Jujube Polyculture we will be planting out in our Forest Garden over the coming seasons.

If you would like the full plans for this polyculture and many more, including a detailed species list, step by step instructions how to build the bed layout, plant out and manage the polyculture, become an annual or monthly subscriber ($70 per year or $7 per month).

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Jujube Polyculture - Datça Peninsula, Muğla Province, Türkiye

If you ever have the pleasure to visit the Datça Peninsula in Türkiye, Knidos, an ancient Greek/Roman port is one of the highlights in the area. The nearby Goknar Knidos Nature Hotel has a beautiful garden surrounding the property and awesome views of the coastline and surrounding area and features a few great polycultures that include Ziziphus jujuba.

The species and cultivar selection in the garden has obviously been guided by a knowledgeable and loving hand over a many decades and some great examples of Mediterranean polyculture can be found around the property , providing a bounty of food for the garden and support to wildlife.

The dry stones walls around the property provide the perfect habitat for Reptiles, small mammals and invertebrates. Not visible in the above photo but under the Ziziphus jujuba - Jujube is an impressive cluster of Opuntia ficus-indica - Barbary fig, full of ripe fruits.

Ziziphus jujuba for Orchard and Agroforestry

For growing Ziziphus jujuba in an orchard or agroforestry scenario optimal spacing depends on tree size (dwarf, semi-dwarf, or standard), rootstock, soil fertility, and management practices (manual vs. mechanized). Here are some general guidelines:

Standard Spacing (Most Common) - 6–8 meters (20–26 ft) between trees, 6–8 meters between rows. Suitable for full-sized trees (up to 8–12 m tall if unpruned).Allows for good air circulation, reducing fungal disease risk and provides space for organic mulching, companion planting, and manual weeding.

High-Density Planting (Semi-Dwarf or Pruned Trees) - 4–5 meters (13–16 ft) between trees, 5–6 meters (16–20 ft) between rows. Works for smaller cultivars or trees kept at 4–6 m height via pruning. Better for early yields but requires more frequent canopy management.

Ultra-High-Density (Experimental, Dwarf Varieties)- 3–4 meters (10–13 ft) between trees, 4–5 meters (13–16 ft) between rows. Used for dwarfing rootstocks or intensive organic systems. Requires vigorous pruning to prevent overcrowding.

The key considerations for growing Jujube in orchards and in agroforestry are as follows:

• Sunlight & Airflow – Wider spacing helps prevent fungal diseases (critical in organic systems).

• Soil Health – Allow space for cover crops, compost application, and beneficial insect habitats.

• Root Competition – Jujube trees have deep roots; avoid overcrowding to reduce water/nutrient stress.

• Harvesting Ease – Wider rows (~6m) allow for manual picking or small equipment.

For an agroforestry set up using multiple species between the trees, a 6m x 8m or wider spacing is probably the best option.

Regenerative Landscape Design - Online Interactive Course

Want to learn how to design, build and manage regenerative landscapes? Join us on our Regenerative Landscape Design - Online Interactive Course.

The course includes 20 lessons, with 20 hours of one-to-one mentoring/consultancy, drawn from over 20 years of experience designing, implementing and managing polyculture gardens, farms, food forests and regenerative landscapes across a variety of climate zones.

We look forward to providing you with the confidence, inspiration, and opportunity to design, build and manage landscapes that produce food and other resources for humans while enhancing biodiversity.

You can access all of the course material without the one-to-one tutoring by becoming a paid annual subscriber to our Substack, which grants you access to the Bloom Room for just 70 USD per year. Subscribe below to join now.

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Jujube Cultivars

With their rich history, adaptability, and myriad uses, they offer something for everyone. Whether fresh, dried, or brewed into tea, jujubes are sure to become a favorite in your home. There are hundreds of jujube varieties, each with its own unique flavor and texture and we have an excellent selection of Jujube cultivars available from our nursery , perfectly suited to European gardens and all tolerant of frosts and hardy to -15°C (5°F) with Lang and Li hardy to -20°C

Jujube - Ziziphus jujuba 'Lang '

• Description: Larger pear-shaped fruits, sweet flavor reminiscent of green apples. High sugar content when dried.

• Fruiting Period: September, edible in their yellow-green phase

• Pollination: Self fertile, will benefit from cross pollination​

• Root Stock: Wild Jujube​

• Hardiness: 5-10 USDA (-20C)

Jujube - Ziziphus jujuba 'Li '

• Description: Large round shaped fruit, good flavor.

• Fruiting Period: September

• ​Pollination: Self fertile, will benefit from cross pollination​​​​​

• Root Stock: Wild Jujube​

• Hardiness: 5 - 10 USDA (-20C)

Jujube - Ziziphus jujuba 'Tiger Tooth'

• Description: Long and thin fruits, considered one of the best for drying

• Fruiting Period: Fruit ripens September. Harvest when fruit are half green and brown for fresh eating or drying.

• Pollination: Self fertile, will benefit from cross pollination​​

• Root Stock: Wild Jujube

• Hardiness: 6a -7 USDA (-15C)

The prices for our cultivars are as follows.

​​27 EUR per tree

250 EUR for 10 trees

2300 EUR for 100 trees

Interested in cultivating your own jujube trees? We offer a selection of premium Ziziphus jujuba cultivars, on standard rootstocks, available for order year-round. Deliveries are made during the following optimal planting windows:

• Autumn: October – December

• Spring: March – April

For larger orders (100+ trees), we recommend placing your request early in the season to guarantee availability.

Delivery & Payment

We ship across Europe with estimated delivery times:

• Western Europe: 7–9 business days

• Eastern Europe: 2–5 business days

Flexible Payment Options:

• Bank transfer (GBP, EUR)

• PayPal (GBP, EUR)

• Cryptocurrency (USDC, USDT)

How to Order:
Simply email us at balkanecologyproject@gmail.com, and we’ll assist you with your purchase.

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• Become a member of the Bloom Room with a $70 annual subscription to our Substack where you can access the content in our Regenerative Landscape Design Course , a member forum and more.

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We offer a diversity of plants and seeds for permaculture, forest gardens, and regenerative landscapes including a range of fruit and nut cultivars. We Deliver all over Europe from Nov - March. - Give a happy plant a happy home :)

An often overlooked reality for novice growers is that the blossoms of fruit/nut trees or shrubs serve as the plants' sexual organs. The remarkable journey from flower to fruit hinges on the transfer of gametes – a process encompassing pollination and fertilization. In simpler terms, the successful union of these tiny elements within the flower's intricate makeup is what transforms these blooms into the delicious fruits we enjoy.

Pollination is a fascinating process involving the transfer of pollen from the male reproductive organs (anthers) of one flower to the female reproductive organs (stigma) of another flower of the same species. This transfer of pollen is crucial for fertilization, which eventually leads to the development of fruits and nuts. For the majority of fruit and nut species the transfer of pollen is carried out by insects, particularly flying insects. Mammals and birds will also do the job for certain species (mostly in the tropics) and in other cases the essential task is left to the wind.

Self fertile, self infertile and cross pollination